Successful reprogramming of cellular protein production through mRNA delivered by functionalized lipid nanoparticles.

The development of safe and efficacious gene vectors has limited greatly the potential for therapeutic treatments based on messenger RNA (mRNA). Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) formed by an ionizable cationic lipid (here DLin-MC3-DMA), helper lipids (distearoylphosphatidylcholine, DSPC, and cholesterol), and a poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) lipid have been identified as very promising delivery vectors of short interfering RNA (siRNA) in different clinical phases; however, delivery of high-molecular weight RNA has been proven much more demanding. Herein we elucidate the structure of hEPO modified mRNA-containing LNPs of different sizes and show how structural differences affect transfection of human adipocytes and hepatocytes, two clinically relevant cell types. Employing small-angle scattering, we demonstrate that LNPs have a disordered inverse hexagonal internal structure with a characteristic distance around 6 nm in presence of mRNA, whereas LNPs containing no mRNA do not display this structure. Furthermore, using contrast variation small-angle neutron scattering, we show that one of the lipid components, DSPC, is localized mainly at the surface of mRNA-containing LNPs. By varying LNP size and surface composition we demonstrate that both size and structure have significant influence on intracellular protein production. As an example, in both human adipocytes and hepatocytes, protein expression levels for 130 nm LNPs can differ as much as 50-fold depending on their surface characteristics, likely due to a difference in the ability of LNP fusion with the early endosome membrane. We consider these discoveries to be fundamental and opening up new possibilities for rational design of synthetic nanoscopic vehicles for mRNA delivery.

Elastic strain-hardening and shear-thickening exhibited by thermoreversible physical hydrogels based on poly(alkylene oxide)-grafted hyaluronic acid or carboxymethylcellulose.

The formation of strongly elastic physical gels based on poly(alkylene oxide)-grafted hyaluronan or carboxymethylcellulose, exhibiting both shear-thickening and strain-hardening have been studied using rheometry and explained using a slightly different interpretation of the transient network theory. The graft copolymers were prepared by a quantitative coupling reaction. Their aqueous solutions displayed a thermoreversible continuous transition from Newtonian fluid to viscoelastic solid which could be controlled by the reaction conditions. The evolution of all material properties of the gel could be categorized into two distinct temperature regimes with a fast evolution at low temperatures followed by a slow evolution at high temperatures. The activation energy of the zero shear viscosity and the relaxation time of the graft inside the interconnecting microdomains were almost identical to each other in both temperature regimes. This suggests that the number of microdomains remained approximately constant whereas the aggregation number inside the microdomains increased according to the binodal curve of the thermosensitive graft.

Stabilizing Colloidal Particles against Salting-out by Shortening Surface Grafts.

A dramatic improvement is reported in the stability of colloidal particles when stabilizing surface grafts are systematically shortened from small polymers to single monomers. The colloidal dispersions consist of fluorinated latex particles, exhibiting a weak van der Waals attraction, with grafted steric layers of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) of different chain lengths. Using an effective salting-out electrolyte, Na2CO3, particle aggregates are detected above a threshold salt concentration that is independent of the particle concentration. The results are interpreted in terms of a sudden onset of nondispersibility of single particles, triggered by the solvent not completely wetting particle surfaces. By decreasing the PEG chain length, the threshold salt concentration is found to increase sharply. For grafts with just a single ethylene glycol group, dispersions remain stable up to exceedingly high concentrations of Na2CO3. However, on removal of the surface coverage altogether, the classical stability behavior of charge-stabilized dispersions is recovered. The behavior can be captured by a simple model that incorporates effective polymer-solvent interactions in the presence of an electrolyte.

Quantitative Grafting for Structure-Function Establishment: Thermoresponsive Poly(alkylene oxide) Graft Copolymers Based on Hyaluronic Acid and Carboxymethylcellulose.

A series of thermoresponsive graft copolymers, gelling at physiological conditions in aqueous solution and cell growth media, have been synthesized using quantitative coupling between a small set of amino-functionalized poly(alkylene oxide) copolymers (PAO) and the carboxylate of the biologically important polysaccharides (PSa) carboxymethylcellulose and the less reactive hyaluronate. Quantitative grafting enables the establishment of structure-function relationship which is imperative for controlling the properties of in situ gelling hydrogels. The EDC/NHS-mediated reaction was monitored using SEC-MALLS, which revealed that all PAOs were grafted onto the PSa backbone. Aqueous solutions of the graft copolymers were Newtonian fluids at room temperatures and formed reversible physical gels at elevated temperatures which were noncytotoxic toward chondrocytes. The established structure-function relationship was most clearly demonstrated by inspecting the thermogelling strength and the onset of thermogelling in a phase diagram. The onset of the thermogelling function could be controlled by the global PAO concentration, independent of graft ratio.

Polymer-Graft-Mediated Interactions between Colloidal Spheres.

Aqueous dispersions of fluorinated colloidal spheres bearing grafted poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) are studied as a function of salt and particle concentration with the aim of improving the understanding of interactions among polymer-grafted particles. These dispersions can sustain large concentrations of salt, but crystals nucleate in dilute dispersions when a sufficient Na2CO3 concentration is reached, which is attributed to the presence of attractions between particles. On further increasing the Na2CO3 concentration, the solvent is rapidly cleared of particles. Small-angle X-ray scattering and cryogenic transmission electron microscopy are employed in order to quantify the attractions. The former is used to extract a second virial coefficient, and the latter shows that the PEG-graft contracts as a function of increasing salt concentration. The contraction not only leads to a reduction in excluded volume but also is accompanied by attractions of moderate magnitude. In contrast, dispersion of the particles in ethanol, in which bulk PEG solutions crystallize, lead to fractal structures caused by strong attractions.

Correction: Magnetically induced structural anisotropy in binary colloidal gels and its effect on diffusion and pressure driven permeability.

Correction for 'Magnetically induced structural anisotropy in binary colloidal gels and its effect on diffusion and pressure driven permeability' by Christoffer Abrahamsson et al., Soft Matter, 2014, 10, 4403-4412.

Temperature-induced attractive interactions of PEO-containing block copolymer micelles.

Interactions in a temperature sensitive-colloidal model system are investigated over a wide range of temperatures and concentrations to characterize the interparticle interactions within the system. This model system is composed of poly(ethylene oxide) end-capped with an octadecyl chain (C18E100), which by small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) have been shown to form spherical micelles in an aqueous salt solution. In the present study a 0.9 M NaF solution is used to shift the cloud point into the experimentally convenient temperature range. Densitometry and SAXS have shown no indication of specific interactions between the salt ions and the micelles. The spherical micelles are found to persist at elevated temperatures and a change in interparticle interaction is observed by viscometry and SAXS. The results are all consistent with the decreased solvent quality of water toward poly(ethylene oxide) with increasing temperature and it is seen that attractive interparticle interactions emerge in the vicinity of the cloud point.

Magnetically induced structural anisotropy in binary colloidal gels and its effect on diffusion and pressure driven permeability.

We report on the synthesis, microstructure and mass transport properties of a colloidal hydrogel self-assembled from a mixture of colloidal silica and nontronite clay plates at different particle concentrations. The gel-structure had uniaxial long-range anisotropy caused by alignment of the clay particles in a strong external magnetic field. After gelation the colloidal silica covered the clay particle network, fixing the orientation of the clay plates. Comparing gels with a clay concentration between 0 and 0.7 vol%, the magnetically oriented gels had a maximum water permeability and self-diffusion coefficient at 0.3 and 0.7 vol% clay, respectively. Hence the specific clay concentration resulting in the highest liquid flux was pressure dependent. This study gives new insight into the effect of anisotropy, particle concentration and bound water on mass transport properties in nano/microporous materials. Such findings merit consideration when designing porous composite materials for use in for example fuel cell, chromatography and membrane technology.

Binding of intercalating and groove-binding cyanine dyes to bacteriophage t5.

The interaction between four related cyanine dyes and bacteriophage T5 is investigated with fluorescence and absorption spectroscopy. The dyes, which differ in size, charge, and mode of DNA-binding, penetrate the capsid and bind the DNA inside. The rate of association decreases progressively with increasing dye size, from a few minutes for YO to more than 50 h for YOYO (at 37 degrees C). The relative affinity for the phage DNA is a factor of about 0.2 lower than for the same T5-DNA when free in solution. Comparison of groove-bound BOXTO-PRO and intercalating YO-PRO shows that the reduced affinity is not due to DNA extension but perhaps influenced by competition with other cationic DNA-binding agents inside the capsid. Although, the extent of dye binding to the phages decreases with increasing external ionic strength, the affinity relative to free DNA increases, which indicates a comparatively weak screening of electrostatic interactions inside the phage. The rate of binding increases with increasing ionic strength, reflecting an increase in effective pore size of the capsid as electrostatic interactions are screened and/or a faster diffusion of the dye through the DNA matrix inside the capsid as the DNA affinity is reduced. A combination of electron microscopy, light scattering, and linear dichroism show that the phages are intact after YO-PRO binding, whereas a small degree of capsid rupture cannot be excluded with BOXTO-PRO.

Semi-batch synthesis of colloidal spheres with fluorinated cores and varying grafts of poly(ethylene glycol).

Fluorinated spheres with grafted poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) have been synthesized using a semi-batch emulsion polymerization in which the initiator is fed slowly to the reaction. In this way, PEG-grafted colloidal spheres can be fabricated with varying PEG chain length, different cores and varying degrees of crosslinking. The resulting batches have been characterized using disc centrifuge photosedimentometry and small-angle X-ray scattering. The size distribution is shown to be a sensitive function of the molar ratio of the reactive PEG macromonomer to fluorinated monomer, and with some optimization latices of very low polydispersity can be obtained with this simple synthesis method. For short PEG grafts too high a molar ratio results in a build up of smaller size particles and a broadening of the size distribution, whereas for longer grafts the mean particle size increases with decreasing molar ratio.

Structure, dynamics, and rheology of concentrated dispersions of poly(ethylene glycol)-grafted colloids.

A comprehensive experimental study of the dynamics and rheology of concentrated aqueous dispersions of poly(ethylene glycol)-grafted colloidal spheres is reported. The study focuses on good solvent conditions, for which excluded-volume interactions dominate. At high concentrations a glass transition is evident from the nondecaying component of the intensity correlation function measured with three-dimensional dynamic light scattering. Results for the linear viscoelastic and steady shear rheology on approaching the glass transition correlate well with the slowing of the diffusive dynamics; in particular, at, or close to, the concentration where the dynamics becomes nonergodic, the dispersions acquire a low-frequency plateau in the elastic shear modulus as well as a yield stress. The overall behavior of the dispersions conforms to that of hard-sphere dispersions; however, some qualitative differences are observed in the evolution of the dynamics and rheology with increasing concentration near the glass transition.

Concentration effects on irreversible colloid cluster aggregation and gelation of silica dispersions.

Effects of particle concentration on the irreversible aggregation of colloidal silica are studied using in situ destabilization via the ionic strength increase derived from the enzymatic hydrolysis of urea by urease. Aggregation is monitored by time-resolved optical density and dynamic light scattering measurements. It terminates at a gel boundary, signaled by a prominent increase of the optical density and incipient non-ergodicity. Raman scattering is used to demonstrate that the enzymatic reaction continues, well beyond gelation for the compositions studied here, until the urea is consumed. Calibration of the ionic conductivity permits for constructing stability diagrams in terms of particle and salt concentration. As with reversible gelation, the process exhibits a collective character in that lower ionic strengths are required for gelation of concentrated dispersions and vice versa. However, light scattering demonstrates that the gel boundary is preceded here by a line marking the transition from reversible to irreversible cluster formation, with the two transition boundaries tracking each other. Comparisons are made with dispersions destabilized by direct addition of salt solutions, which gel under very different conditions.

On the percolation of alginate/calcium systems at low concentrations.

The sol-to-gel transition of an alginate rich in ß-d-mannuronic acid residues and at a concentration of 0.1% w/v in 15 mM NaCl in the presence of calcium ions of 0 to 3.5mM was studied with dynamic light scattering. The dynamics of the different systems added further insight into the alginate gel forming mechanisms. Below a Ca(2+) concentration of 0.7 mM, the build-up of small aggregates could be verified. Moreover, at a critical concentration, close to 0.9 mM Ca(2+), a percolated, non-ergodic network started to form from some of these aggregates, with smaller aggregates still diffusing in the network. The system displayed strong non-ergodicy at high Ca(2+) concentrations with a non-ergodicity parameter that appeared to form discontinuously from near zero to a clearly non-zero value at the critical Ca(2+) concentration.

Analysis of small-angle X-ray scattering data in the presence of significant instrumental smearing.

A laboratory-scale small-angle X-ray scattering instrument with pinhole collimation has been used to assess smearing effects due to instrumental resolution. A new, numerically efficient method to smear ideal model intensities is developed and presented. It allows for directly using measured profiles of isotropic but otherwise arbitrary beams in smearing calculations. Samples of low-polydispersity polymer spheres have been used to show that scattering data can in this way be quantitatively modeled even when there is substantial distortion due to instrumental resolution.

Concentration-Induced Association in a Protein System Caused by a Highly Directional Patch Attraction.

Self-association of the protein lactoferrin is studied in solution using small-angle X-ray scattering techniques. Effective static structure factors have been shown to exhibit either a monotonic or a nonmonotonic dependence on protein concentration in the small wavevector limit, depending on salt concentration. The behavior correlates with a nonmonotonic dependence of the second virial coefficient on salt concentration, such that a maximum appears in the structure factor at a low protein concentration when the second virial coefficient is negative and close to a minimum. The results are interpreted in terms of an integral equation theory with explicit dimers, formulated by Wertheim, which provides a consistent framework able to explain the behavior in terms of a monomer-dimer equilibrium that appears because of a highly directional patch attraction. Short attraction ranges preclude trimer formation, which explains why the protein system behaves as if it were subject to a concentration-dependent isotropic protein-protein attraction. Superimposing an isotropic interaction, comprising screened Coulomb repulsion and van der Waals attraction, on the patch attraction allows for a semiquantitative modeling of the complete transition pathway from monomers in the dilute limit to monomer-dimer systems at somewhat higher protein concentrations.

Solid lipid nanoparticles from amphiphilic calixpyrroles.

HYPOTHESIS: Macrocyclic amphiphiles form interesting self-assembling structures, including solid lipid nanoparticles, which have potential applications in drug encapsulation. Aryl-extended calixpyrroles, which act as anion binding hosts, are expected to form solid lipid nanoparticles, even though the alkyl chains have unusual perpendicular geometry with respect to the hydrophilic head group. The preparation conditions and the alkyl chain length should affect the size and stability of the particles. EXPERIMENTS: Solid lipid nanoparticles of two aryl-extended calixpyrroles with resorcinol walls and either meso-dodecyl or meso-methyl alkyl chains were compared. Ethanolic solutions of the calixpyrroles were mixed with water and the resulting nanoparticle dispersions were studied with dynamic light scattering and nanoparticle tracking analysis. The effect of different calixpyrrole/ethanol/water ratios on particle size was tested. The surface charge of the particles at different pH and NaCl concentration was determined by zeta potential measurements. FINDINGS: The meso-dodecyl calixpyrrole produced small nanoparticles with mean hydrodynamic diameters between 40 and 70nm in 0.86-4.28M ethanol. The particles were stable in solution for several months. Particles prepared from meso-methyl calixpyrrole were larger and less stable. The smallest particles were obtained with low calixpyrrole concentration and calixpyrrole/ethanol ratio. Larger ethanol/water ratio induced broader particle size distributions. Increasing pH aided the stability of the particles due to increased negative surface charge.

Unusual dynamics of concentration fluctuations in solutions of weakly attractive globular proteins.

The globular protein γB-crystallin exhibits a complex phase behavior, where liquid-liquid phase separation characterized by a critical volume fraction ϕc = 0.154 and a critical temperature Tc = 291.8 K coexists with dynamical arrest on all length scales at volume fractions around ϕ ≈ 0.3-0.35, and an arrest line that extends well into the unstable region below the spinodal. However, although the static properties such as the osmotic compressibility and the static correlation length are in quantitative agreement with predictions for binary liquid mixtures, this is not the case for the dynamics of concentration fluctuations described by the dynamic structure factor S(q,t). Using a combination of dynamic light scattering and neutron spin echo measurements, we demonstrate that the competition between critical slowing down and dynamical arrest results in a much more complex wave vector dependence of S(q,t) than previously anticipated.

Monodisperse PEGylated spheres: an aqueous colloidal model system.

Fluorinated core-shell spheres have been synthesized using a novel semibatch emulsion polymerization protocol employing slow feeding of the initiator. The synthesis results in aqueous dispersions of highly monodisperse spheres bearing a well-defined poly(ethylene glycol) graft (PEGylation). Measurements are consistent with the synthesis achieving a high grafting density that moreover consists of a single PEG layer with the polymer significantly elongated beyond its radius of gyration in bulk. The fluorination of the core of the particles confers a low index of refraction such that the particles can be refractive index matched in water through addition of relatively small amounts of a cosolvent, which enables the use of optical and laser-based methods for studies of concentrated systems. The systems exhibit an extreme stability in NaCl solutions, but attractions among particles can be introduced by addition of other salts, in which case aggregation is shown to be reversible. The PEGylated sphere dispersions are expected to be ideally suited as model systems for studies of the effect of PEG-mediated interactions on, for instance, structure, dynamics, phase behavior, and rheology.

Surface charge and interfacial potential of titanium dioxide nanoparticles: experimental and theoretical investigations.

Size dependent surface charging and interfacial potential of titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles are investigated by experimental and theoretical methods. Commercially available TiO2 (P25) nanoparticles were used for surface charge determinations by potentiometric titrations. Anatase particles, 10 and 22 nm in diameter, were synthesized by controlled hydrolysis of TiCl4, and electrophoretic mobilities were determined at a fixed pH but at increasing salt concentrations. Corrected Debye-Hückel theory of surface complexation (CDH-SC) was modified to model the size dependent surface charging behavior of TiO2 nanoparticles. Experimentally determined surface charge densities of rutile and P25 nanoparticles in different electrolytes were accurately modeled by the CDH-SC theory. Stern layer capacitances calculated by the CDH-SC theory were in good agreement with the values found by the classical surface complexation approach, and the interaction of protons with OH groups is found to be less exothermic than for iron oxide surfaces. Moreover, the CDH-SC theory predicts that the surface charge density of TiO2 nanoparticles of diameter <10nm is considerably higher than for larger particles, and pH at the point of zero charge (pHPZC) shifts to higher pH values as the particle size decreases. The importance of including the particle size in calculating the zeta potentials from mobilities is demonstrated. Smoluchowski theory showed that 10nm particles had lower zeta potential than 22 nm particles, whereas a reverse trend was seen when zeta potentials were calculated by Ohshima's theory in which particle size is included. Electrokinetic charge densities calculated from zeta potentials were found to be only one third of the true surface charge densities.

Fundamental mechanisms for tablet dissolution: simulation of particle deaggregation via Brownian dynamics.

For disintegrating tablet formulations, deaggregation of small particles is sometimes one of the rate-limiting processes for drug release. Because the tablets contain particles that are in the colloidal size range, it may be assumed that the deaggregation process, at least qualitatively, is governed by Brownian motion and electrostatic and van der Waals interactions, where the latter two can be described by a Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek interaction potential. On the basis of this hypothesis, the present work investigates the applicability of Brownian dynamics (BD) simulations as a tool to understand the deaggregation mechanism on a fundamental level. BD simulations are therefore carried out to determine important deaggregation characteristics such as the so-called mean first passage time (MFPT) and first passage time distribution (FPTD) for various two-, three-, and four-particle aggregates. The BD algorithm is first validated and tuned by comparison with analytical expressions for the MFPT and FPTD in the two-particle case. It is then shown that the same algorithm can also be used for the three-particle case. Lastly, the simulations of three- and four-particle aggregates show that the initial shape of the aggregates may significantly affect the deaggregation time.