Baculovirus display for discovery of low-affinity extracellular receptor-ligand interactions using protein microarrays.

When used in conjunction with multivalent protein probes, protein microarrays offer a robust technology for discovery of low-affinity extracellular protein-protein interactions. Probes for receptor-matching screens generally consist of purified extracellular domains fused to affinity tags. Given that approximately two-thirds of extracellular proteins are transmembrane domain-containing proteins, it would be desirable to develop a system to express and display probe receptors in a native-like membrane environment. Toward this end, we evaluated baculovirus display as a platform for generating multivalent probes for protein microarray screens. Virion particles were generated displaying single-transmembrane domain receptors BTLA, CD200, and EFNB2, representing a range of affinities for their interacting partners. Virions directly labeled with Cy5 fluorophore were screened against a microarray containing more than 600 extracellular proteins, and the results were compared with data derived from soluble Fc protein or probe-coated protein A microbeads. An optimized protocol employing a blocking step with a nonrelated probe-expressing control baculovirus allowed identification of the expected interactions with a signal-to-noise ratio similar to or higher than those obtained with the other formats. Our results demonstrate that baculovirus display is suitable for detection of high- and low-affinity extracellular protein-protein interactions on protein microarrays. This platform eliminates the need for protein purification and provides a native-like lipid environment for membrane-associated receptors.

Molecular basis of Tank-binding kinase 1 activation by transautophosphorylation.

Tank-binding kinase (TBK)1 plays a central role in innate immunity: it serves as an integrator of multiple signals induced by receptor-mediated pathogen detection and as a modulator of IFN levels. Efforts to better understand the biology of this key immunological factor have intensified recently as growing evidence implicates aberrant TBK1 activity in a variety of autoimmune diseases and cancers. Nevertheless, key molecular details of TBK1 regulation and substrate selection remain unanswered. Here, structures of phosphorylated and unphosphorylated human TBK1 kinase and ubiquitin-like domains, combined with biochemical studies, indicate a molecular mechanism of activation via transautophosphorylation. These TBK1 structures are consistent with the tripartite architecture observed recently for the related kinase IKKß, but domain contributions toward target recognition appear to differ for the two enzymes. In particular, both TBK1 autoactivation and substrate specificity are likely driven by signal-dependent colocalization events.

Small-molecule ligands bind to a distinct pocket in Ras and inhibit SOS-mediated nucleotide exchange activity.

The Ras gene is frequently mutated in cancer, and mutant Ras drives tumorigenesis. Although Ras is a central oncogene, small molecules that bind to Ras in a well-defined manner and exert inhibitory effects have not been uncovered to date. Through an NMR-based fragment screen, we identified a group of small molecules that all bind to a common site on Ras. High-resolution cocrystal structures delineated a unique ligand-binding pocket on the Ras protein that is adjacent to the switch I/II regions and can be expanded upon compound binding. Structure analysis predicts that compound-binding interferes with the Ras/SOS interactions. Indeed, selected compounds inhibit SOS-mediated nucleotide exchange and prevent Ras activation by blocking the formation of intermediates of the exchange reaction. The discovery of a small-molecule binding pocket on Ras with functional significance provides a new direction in the search of therapeutically effective inhibitors of the Ras oncoprotein.

Disruption of PH-kinase domain interactions leads to oncogenic activation of AKT in human cancers.

The protein kinase v-akt murine thymoma viral oncogene homolog (AKT), a key regulator of cell survival and proliferation, is frequently hyperactivated in human cancers. Intramolecular pleckstrin homology (PH) domain-kinase domain (KD) interactions are important in maintaining AKT in an inactive state. AKT activation proceeds after a conformational change that dislodges the PH from the KD. To understand these autoinhibitory interactions, we generated mutations at the PH-KD interface and found that most of them lead to constitutive activation of AKT. Such mutations are likely another mechanism by which activation may occur in human cancers and other diseases. In support of this likelihood, we found somatic mutations in AKT1 at the PH-KD interface that have not been previously described in human cancers. Furthermore, we show that the AKT1 somatic mutants are constitutively active, leading to oncogenic signaling. Additionally, our studies show that the AKT1 mutants are not effectively inhibited by allosteric AKT inhibitors, consistent with the requirement for an intact PH-KD interface for allosteric inhibition. These results have important implications for therapeutic intervention in patients with AKT mutations at the PH-KD interface.

Identification of amides derived from 1H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine-5-carboxylic acid as potent inhibitors of human nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT).

Potent, 1H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine-containing inhibitors of the human nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT) enzyme were identified using structure-based design techniques. Many of these compounds exhibited nanomolar antiproliferation activities against human tumor lines in in vitro cell culture experiments, and a representative example (compound 26) demonstrated encouraging in vivo efficacy in a mouse xenograft tumor model derived from the A2780 cell line. This molecule also exhibited reduced rat retinal exposures relative to a previously studied imidazo-pyridine-containing NAMPT inhibitor. Somewhat surprisingly, compound 26 was only weakly active in vitro against mouse and monkey tumor cell lines even though it was a potent inhibitor of NAMPT enzymes derived from these species. The compound also exhibited only minimal effects on in vivo NAD levels in mice, and these changes were considerably less profound than those produced by an imidazo-pyridine-containing NAMPT inhibitor. The crystal structures of compound 26 and the corresponding PRPP-derived ribose adduct in complex with NAMPT were also obtained.

Structural studies of neuropilin/antibody complexes provide insights into semaphorin and VEGF binding.

Neuropilins (Nrps) are co-receptors for class 3 semaphorins and vascular endothelial growth factors and important for the development of the nervous system and the vasculature. The extracellular portion of Nrp is composed of two domains that are essential for semaphorin binding (a1a2), two domains necessary for VEGF binding (b1b2), and one domain critical for receptor dimerization (c). We report several crystal structures of Nrp1 and Nrp2 fragments alone and in complex with antibodies that selectively block either semaphorin or vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) binding. In these structures, Nrps adopt an unexpected domain arrangement in which the a2, b1, and b2 domains form a tightly packed core that is only loosely connected to the a1 domain. The locations of the antibody epitopes together with in vitro experiments indicate that VEGF and semaphorin do not directly compete for Nrp binding. Based upon our structural and functional data, we propose possible models for ligand binding to neuropilins.

Semiautomated Small-Scale Purification Method for High-Throughput Expression Analysis of Recombinant Proteins.

The expression analysis of recombinant proteins is a challenging step in any high-throughput protein production pipeline. Often multiple expression systems and a variety of expression construct designs are considered for the production of a protein of interest. There is a strong need to triage constructs rapidly and systematically. This chapter describes a semiautomated method for the simultaneous purification and characterization of proteins expressed from multiple samples of expression cultures from the E. coli, baculovirus expression vector system, and mammalian transient expression systems. This method assists in the selection of the most promising expression construct(s) or the most favorable expression condition(s) to move forward into large-scale protein production.

Development of a Potent, Specific CDK8 Kinase Inhibitor Which Phenocopies CDK8/19 Knockout Cells.

Beginning with promiscuous COT inhibitors, which were found to inhibit CDK8, a series of 6-aza-benzothiophene containing compounds were developed into potent, selective CDK8 inhibitors. When cocrystallized with CDK8 and cyclin C, these compounds exhibit an unusual binding mode, making a single hydrogen bond to the hinge residue A100, a second to K252, and a key cation-π interaction with R356. Structure-based drug design resulted in tool compounds 13 and 32, which are highly potent, kinase selective, permeable compounds with a free fraction >2% and no measurable efflux. Despite these attractive properties, these compounds exhibit weak antiproliferative activity in the HCT-116 colon cancer cell line. Further examination of the activity of 32 in this cell line revealed that the compound reduced phosphorylation of the known CDK8 substrate STAT1 in a manner identical to a CDK8 knockout clone, illustrating the complex effects of inhibition of CDK8 kinase activity in proliferation in these cells.

Design and Development of a Series of Potent and Selective Type II Inhibitors of CDK8.

Using Sorafenib as a starting point, a series of potent and selective inhibitors of CDK8 was developed. When cocrystallized with CDK8 and cyclin C, these compounds exhibit a Type-II (DMG-out) binding mode.

Battling Btk Mutants With Noncovalent Inhibitors That Overcome Cys481 and Thr474 Mutations.

The Bruton's tyrosine kinase (Btk) inhibitor ibrutinib has shown impressive clinical efficacy in a range of B-cell malignancies. However, acquired resistance has emerged, and second generation therapies are now being sought. Ibrutinib is a covalent, irreversible inhibitor that modifies Cys481 in the ATP binding site of Btk and renders the enzyme inactive, thereby blocking B-cell receptor signal transduction. Not surprisingly, Cys481 is the most commonly mutated Btk residue in cases of acquired resistance to ibrutinib. Mutations at other sites, including Thr474, a gatekeeper residue, have also been detected. Herein, we describe noncovalent Btk inhibitors that differ from covalent inhibitors like ibrutinib in that they do not interact with Cys481, they potently inhibit the ibrutinib-resistant Btk C481S mutant in vitro and in cells, and they are exquisitely selective for Btk. Noncovalent inhibitors such as GNE-431 also show excellent potency against the C481R, T474I, and T474M mutants. X-ray crystallographic analysis of Btk provides insight into the unique mode of binding of these inhibitors that explains their high selectivity for Btk and their retained activity against mutant forms of Btk. This class of noncovalent Btk inhibitors may provide a treatment option to patients, especially those who have acquired resistance to ibrutinib by mutation of Cys481 or Thr474.

Discovery of a Noncovalent, Mutant-Selective Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Inhibitor.

Inhibitors targeting the activating mutants of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) have found success in the treatment of EGFR mutant positive non-small-cell lung cancer. A secondary point mutation (T790M) in the inhibitor binding site has been linked to the acquired resistance against those first generation therapeutics. Herein, we describe the lead optimization of a series of reversible, pan-mutant (L858R, del746-750, T790M/L858R, and T790M/del746-750) EGFR inhibitors. By use of a noncovalent double mutant (T790M/L858R and T790M/del746-750) selective EGFR inhibitor (2) as a starting point, activities against the single mutants (L858R and del746-750) were introduced through a series of structure-guided modifications. The in vitro ADME-PK properties of the lead molecules were further optimized through a number of rational structural changes. The resulting inhibitor (21) exhibited excellent cellular activity against both the single and double mutants of EGFR, demonstrating target engagement in vivo and ADME-PK properties that are suitable for further evaluation. The reversible, noncovalent inhibitors described complement the covalent pan-mutant EGFR inhibitors that have shown encouraging results in recent clinical trials.

Illicit use of prescribed stimulant medication among college students.

The authors investigated illicit use of stimulant medications at a midwestern university. They used a questionnaire to (a) examine the extent to which university students illicitly used stimulant medications prescribed for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder; (b) determine why college students abused such drugs; and (c) identify the factors that predicted illicit use of prescribed stimulant medication. Findings revealed that 17% of 179 surveyed men and 11% of 202 women reported illicit use of prescribed stimulant medication. Forty-four percent of surveyed students stated that they knew students who used stimulant medication illicitly for both academic and recreational reasons. Students reported they experienced time pressures associated with college life and that stimulants were said to increase alertness and energy. Regression analysis revealed that the factor that predicted men's use was knowing where to get easily acquired stimulant medication, whereas the main predictor for women was whether another student had offered the prescribed stimulants.

Noncovalent Mutant Selective Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Inhibitors: A Lead Optimization Case Study.

Because of their increased activity against activating mutants, first-generation epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) kinase inhibitors have had remarkable success in treating non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients, but acquired resistance, through a secondary mutation of the gatekeeper residue, means that clinical responses only last for 8-14 months. Addressing this unmet medical need requires agents that can target both of the most common double mutants: T790M/L858R (TMLR) and T790M/del(746-750) (TMdel). Herein we describe how a noncovalent double mutant selective lead compound was optimized using a strategy focused on the structure-guided increase in potency without added lipophilicity or reduction of three-dimensional character. Following successive rounds of design and synthesis it was discovered that cis-fluoro substitution on 4-hydroxy- and 4-methoxypiperidinyl groups provided synergistic, substantial, and specific potency gain through direct interaction with the enzyme and/or effects on the proximal ligand oxygen atom. Further development of the fluorohydroxypiperidine series resulted in the identification of a pair of diastereomers that showed 50-fold enzyme and cell based selectivity for T790M mutants over wild-type EGFR (wtEGFR) in vitro and pathway knock-down in an in vivo xenograft model.

Structural basis of Nav1.7 inhibition by an isoform-selective small-molecule antagonist.

Voltage-gated sodium (Nav) channels propagate action potentials in excitable cells. Accordingly, Nav channels are therapeutic targets for many cardiovascular and neurological disorders. Selective inhibitors have been challenging to design because the nine mammalian Nav channel isoforms share high sequence identity and remain recalcitrant to high-resolution structural studies. Targeting the human Nav1.7 channel involved in pain perception, we present a protein-engineering strategy that has allowed us to determine crystal structures of a novel receptor site in complex with isoform-selective antagonists. GX-936 and related inhibitors bind to the activated state of voltage-sensor domain IV (VSD4), where their anionic aryl sulfonamide warhead engages the fourth arginine gating charge on the S4 helix. By opposing VSD4 deactivation, these compounds inhibit Nav1.7 through a voltage-sensor trapping mechanism, likely by stabilizing inactivated states of the channel. Residues from the S2 and S3 helices are key determinants of isoform selectivity, and bound phospholipids implicate the membrane as a modulator of channel function and pharmacology. Our results help to elucidate the molecular basis of voltage sensing and establish structural blueprints to design selective Nav channel antagonists.

Oncogenic ERBB3 mutations in human cancers.

The human epidermal growth factor receptor (HER) family of tyrosine kinases is deregulated in multiple cancers either through amplification, overexpression, or mutation. ERBB3/HER3, the only member with an impaired kinase domain, although amplified or overexpressed in some cancers, has not been reported to carry oncogenic mutations. Here, we report the identification of ERBB3 somatic mutations in ~11% of colon and gastric cancers. We found that the ERBB3 mutants transformed colonic and breast epithelial cells in a ligand-independent manner. However, the mutant ERBB3 oncogenic activity was dependent on kinase-active ERBB2. Furthermore, we found that anti-ERBB antibodies and small molecule inhibitors effectively blocked mutant ERBB3-mediated oncogenic signaling and disease progression in vivo.

Potent, selective, and orally bioavailable inhibitors of the mammalian target of rapamycin kinase domain exhibiting single agent antiproliferative activity.

Selective inhibitors of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) kinase based upon saturated heterocycles fused to a pyrimidine core were designed and synthesized. Each series produced compounds with K(i) < 10 nM for the mTOR kinase and >500-fold selectivity over closely related PI3 kinases. This potency translated into strong pathway inhibition, as measured by phosphorylation of mTOR substrate proteins and antiproliferative activity in cell lines with a constitutively active PI3K pathway. Two compounds exhibiting suitable mouse PK were profiled in in vivo tumor models and were shown to suppress mTORC1 and mTORC2 signaling for over 12 h when dosed orally. Both compounds were additionally shown to suppress tumor growth in vivo in a PC3 prostate cancer model over a 14 day study.

The crystal structure of the catalytic domain of the NF-κB inducing kinase reveals a narrow but flexible active site.

The NF-κB inducing kinase (NIK) regulates the non-canonical NF-κB pathway downstream of important clinical targets including BAFF, RANKL, and LTß. Despite numerous genetic studies associating dysregulation of this pathway with autoimmune diseases and hematological cancers, detailed molecular characterization of this central signaling node has been lacking. We undertook a systematic cloning and expression effort to generate soluble, well-behaved proteins encompassing the kinase domains of human and murine NIK. Structures of the apo NIK kinase domain from both species reveal an active-like conformation in the absence of phosphorylation. ATP consumption and peptide phosphorylation assays confirm that phosphorylation of NIK does not increase enzymatic activity. Structures of murine NIK bound to inhibitors possessing two different chemotypes reveal conformational flexibility in the gatekeeper residue controlling access to a hydrophobic pocket. Finally, a single amino acid difference affects the ability of some inhibitors to bind murine and human NIK with the same affinity.

Potent, selective, and orally bioavailable inhibitors of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) kinase based on a quaternary substituted dihydrofuropyrimidine.

A series of inhibitors of mTOR kinase based on a quaternary-substituted dihydrofuropyrimidine was designed and synthesized. The most potent compounds in this series inhibited mTOR kinase with K(i) < 1.0 nM and were highly (>100×) selective for mTOR over the closely related PI3 kinases. Compounds in this series showed inhibition of the pathway and antiproliferative activity in cell-based assays. Furthermore, these compounds had excellent mouse PK, and showed a robust PK-PD relationship in a mouse model of cancer.

Somatic mutations in p85alpha promote tumorigenesis through class IA PI3K activation.

Members of the mammalian phosphoinositide-3-OH kinase (PI3K) family of proteins are critical regulators of various cellular process including cell survival, growth, proliferation, and motility. Oncogenic activating mutations in the p110alpha catalytic subunit of the heterodimeric p110/p85 PI3K enzyme are frequent in human cancers. Here we show the presence of frequent mutations in p85alpha in colon cancer, a majority of which occurs in the inter-Src homology-2 (iSH2) domain. These mutations uncouple and retain p85alpha's p110-stabilizing activity, while abrogating its p110-inhibitory activity. The p85alpha mutants promote cell survival, AKT activation, anchorage-independent cell growth, and oncogenesis in a p110-dependent manner.