Healthy lifestyles are associated with better vitamin D status in community-dwelling older men: The Health In Men Study (HIMS).

OBJECTIVE: Older people are more prone to vitamin D deficiency than younger populations. Individual lifestyle factors have been associated with vitamin D status. We examined the influence of a combination of lifestyle factors on vitamin D status in older men. PARTICIPANTS AND MEASUREMENTS: In a population-based cohort study of older men (age ≥65 years), a lifestyle score was calculated from eight prudent health-related behaviours (smoking, exercise, alcohol, fish and meat consumption, adding salt, milk choices and obesity) collected via questionnaire at baseline. Blood samples were collected 5 years afterwards to measure plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) levels. Associations between lifestyles and the likelihood of having plasma 25OHD levels of ≥75 versus <75 nmol/L and ≥50 versus <50 nmol/L were tested using logistic regression models. RESULTS: Of the 2717 men analysed, mean plasma 25OHD was 69.0 ± 23.5 nmol/L, with 20.7% having plasma 25OHD <50 nmol/L. Men engaging in ≥4 healthy lifestyle behaviours had 20% higher odds of plasma 25OHD ≥75 nmol/L (adjusted OR = 1.20, 95% CI: 1.01-1.45) compared to those with <4 healthy behaviours. No association was found for 25OHD ≥50 nmol/L. Higher physical activity was the only individual component significantly associated with vitamin D sufficiency (highest vs. lowest quintiles of physical activity, adjusted OR = 2.01, 95% CI: 1.47-2.74 for 25OHD ≥50 nmol/L, adjusted OR = 2.35, 95% CI: 1.81-3.06 for 25OHD ≥75 nmol/L). CONCLUSION: Multiple healthy lifestyle behaviours are associated with better vitamin D status in older men. Further work is needed to determine the effects of promoting healthy lifestyle behaviours, including physical activity, on vitamin D sufficiency.

Associated Factors of Patients' Survival in Out of Hospital Cardiac Arrest; a Cross-sectional Study.

Introduction: Chinese populations have an increasingly high prevalence of cardiac arrest. This study aimed to investigate the prehospital associated factors of survival to hospital admission and discharge among out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) adult cases in Macao Special Administrative Region (SAR), China. Methods: Baseline characteristics as well as prehospital factors of OHCA patients were collected from publicly accessible medical records and Macao Fire Services Bureau, China. Demographic and other prehospital OHCA characteristics of patients who survived to hospital admission and discharge were analyzed using multivariate logistic regression analysis. Results: A total of 904 cases with a mean age of 74.2±17.3 (range: 18-106) years were included (78%>65 years, 62% male). Initial shockable cardiac rhythm was the strongest predictor for survival to both hospital admission (OR=3.57, 95% CI: 2.26-5.63; p<0.001) and discharge (OR=12.40, 95% CI: 5.70-26.96; p<0.001). Being male (OR=1.63, 95% CI:1.08-2.46; p =0.021) and the lower emergency medical service (EMS) response time (OR=1.62, 95% CI: 1.12-2.34; p =0.010) were also associated with a 2-fold association with survival to hospital admission. In addition, access to prehospital defibrillation (OR=4.25, 95% CI: 1.78-10.12; p <0.001) had a 4-fold association with survival to hospital discharge. None of these associations substantively increased with age. Conclusion: The major OHCA predictors of survival were initial shockable cardiac rhythm, being male, lower EMS response time, and access to prehospital defibrillation. These findings indicate a need for increased public awareness and more education.

Risk factors of posttraumatic stress disorder after an earthquake disaster.

This study sought to predict posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) from women's reproductive health events after an earthquake experience. Data on antenatal care, pregnancy outcomes, family planning, socioeconomic status, earthquake experiences, and mental health were collected from a random sample of 425 women of reproductive age using the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Reproductive Health Assessment Toolkit and the Harvard Trauma Questionnaire. Data were analyzed using multivariate regression analysis to predict PTSD symptoms from posttrauma care variables and reproductive health events. Restricted social participation, use of temporary accommodation, pregnancy complications, and use of injectable contraceptives were significant risk factors of PTSD. These factors may be exacerbated by the social context of conservative societies, traditions about health care-seeking behavior, and access to health care. Antecedent reproductive health events influence women's reaction to major trauma including events such as an earthquake.

Fruit, vegetables, fibre and micronutrients and risk of US renal cell carcinoma.

The association between renal cell cancer (RCC) and intake of fruit, vegetables and nutrients was examined in a population-based case-control study of 323 cases and 1827 controls; dietary intake was obtained using a mailed questionnaire. Cancer risks were estimated by OR and 95 % CI, adjusting for age, sex, smoking, obesity, hypertension, proxy status, alcohol consumption and dietary fat intake and energy. Intake of vegetables was associated with a decreased risk of RCC (OR 0·5; 95 % CI 0·3, 0·7; P trend = 0·002), (top compared to the bottom quartile of intake). When intake of individual nutrients was investigated, vegetable fibre intake was associated with decreased risks (OR 0·4; 95 % CI 0·2, 0·6; P < 0·001), but this was not the case with fruit fibre (OR 0·7; 95 % CI 0·4, 1·1) or grain fibre (OR 1·0; 95 % CI 0·6, 1·5). ß-Cryptoxanthin and lycopene were also associated with decreased risks, but when both were included in a mutually adjusted backwards stepwise regression model, only ß-cryptoxanthin remained significant (OR 0·5; 95 % CI 0·3, 0·8). When other micronutrients and types of fibre were investigated together, only vegetable fibre and ß-cryptoxanthin had significant trends (P < 0·01) (OR 0·6; 95 % CI 0·3, 0·9) (OR 0·5; 95 % CI 0·3, 0·9), respectively. These findings were stronger in those aged over 65 years (P interaction = 0·001). Among non-smokers, low intake of cruciferous vegetables and fruit fibre was also associated with increased risk of RCC (P interaction = 0·03); similar inverse associations were found for ß-cryptoxanthin, lycopene and vitamin C. When nutrients were mutually adjusted by backwards regression in these subgroups, only ß-cryptoxanthin remained associated with lower RCC risk. These findings deserve further investigation in ongoing prospective studies when sample size becomes sufficient.

Diabetes prevalence is associated with serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D in US middle-aged Caucasian men and women: a cross-sectional analysis within the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal and Ovarian Cancer Screening Trial.

Hypovitaminosis D may be associated with diabetes, hypertension and CHD. However, because studies examining the associations of all three chronic conditions with circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25(OH)(2)D) are limited, we examined these associations in the US Prostate, Lung, Colorectal and Ovarian (PLCO) Cancer Screening Trial (n 2465). Caucasian PLCO participants selected as controls in previous nested case-control studies of 25(OH)D and 1,25(OH)(2)D were included in this analysis. Diabetes, CHD and hypertension prevalence, risk factors for these conditions and intake of vitamin D and Ca were collected from a baseline questionnaire. Results indicated that serum levels of 25(OH)D were low (< 50 nmol/l) in 29 % and very low (< 37 nmol/l) in 11 % of subjects. The prevalence of diabetes, hypertension and CHD was 7, 30 and 10 %, respectively. After adjustment for confounding by sex, geographical location, educational level, smoking history, BMI, physical activity, total dietary energy and vitamin D and Ca intake, only diabetes was significantly associated with lower 25(OH)D and 1,25(OH)(2)D levels. Caucasians who had 25(OH)D ≥ 80 nmol/l were half as likely to have diabetes (OR 0·5 (95 % CI 0·3, 0·9)) compared with those who had 25(OH)D < 37 nmol/l. Those in the highest quartile of 1,25(OH)(2)D (≥ 103 pmol/l) were less than half as likely to have diabetes (OR 0·3 (95 % CI 0·1, 0·7)) than those in the lowest quartile (< 72 pmol/l). In conclusion, the independent associations of 25(OH)D and 1,25(OH)(2)D with diabetes prevalence in a large population are new findings, and thus warrant confirmation in larger, prospective studies.

Reproductive health and access to healthcare facilities: risk factors for depression and anxiety in women with an earthquake experience.

BACKGROUND: The reproductive and mental health of women contributes significantly to their overall well-being. Three of the eight Millennium Development Goals are directly related to reproductive and sexual health while mental disorders make up three of the ten leading causes of disease burden in low and middle-income countries. Among mental disorders, depression and anxiety are two of the most prevalent. In the context of slower progress in achieving Millennium Development Goals in developing countries and the ever-increasing man-made and natural disasters in these areas, it is important to understand the association between reproductive health and mental health among women with post-disaster experiences. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study with a sample of 387 women of reproductive age (15-49 years) randomly selected from the October 2005 earthquake affected areas of Pakistan. Data on reproductive health was collected using the Centers for Disease Control reproductive health assessment toolkit. Depression and anxiety were measured using the Hopkins Symptom Checklist-25, while earthquake experiences were captured using the Harvard Trauma Questionnaire. The association of either depression or anxiety with socio-demographic variables, earthquake experiences, reproductive health and access to health facilities was estimated using multivariate logistic regression. RESULTS: Post-earthquake reproductive health events together with economic deprivation, lower family support and poorer access to health care facilities explained a significant proportion of differences in the experiencing of clinical levels of depression and anxiety. For instance, women losing resources for subsistence, separation from family and experiencing reproductive health events such as having a stillbirth, having had an abortion, having had abnormal vaginal discharge or having had genital ulcers, were at significant risk of depression and anxiety. CONCLUSION: The relationship between women's post-earthquake mental health and reproductive health, socio-economic status, and health care access is complex and explained largely by the socio-cultural role of women. It is suggested that interventions that consider gender differences and that are culturally appropriate are likely to reduce the incidence.

Associations of Osteocalcin Forms With Metabolic Syndrome and Its Individual Components in Older Men: The Health In Men Study.

CONTEXT: The osteoblast-derived polypeptide, osteocalcin (OC), has been associated with lower risk of type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome (MetS) in several epidemiological studies. Animal studies have indicated the undercarboxylated form of OC (ucOC) drives its association with metabolic outcomes. OBJECTIVE: We compared associations of ucOC and carboxylated OC (cOC) with MetS and its components in older men. METHODS: A cross-sectional analysis of 2575 men aged ≥70 years and older resident in Perth, Western Australia. ucOC was assayed using a hydroxyapatite-binding method, and cOC calculated by subtracting ucOC from total OC. Main outcome measures were MetS and its components. RESULTS: Both lower serum ucOC and cOC levels, and the proportion of cOC (%cOC) were associated with less favorable metabolic parameters (higher waist circumference, triglyceride, glucose, blood pressure, and lower high-density lipoprotein cholesterol), whereas inverse associations were found with %ucOC. Men in the lowest quintile of ucOC had higher risk of MetS compared to men in the highest quintile (Q1 ≤ 7.7 vs Q5 > 13.8 ng/mL; OR = 2.4; 95% CI, 1.8-3.2). Men in the lowest quintile of cOC had higher risk of MetS compared to those in the highest quintile (≤ 5.8 vs > 13.0 ng/mL; OR = 2.4; 95% CI, 1.8-3.2). CONCLUSION: Lower concentrations of serum ucOC or cOC were associated with less favorable metabolic parameters and a higher risk of MetS. In contrast, a lower proportion of ucOC was associated with better metabolic parameters and lower MetS risk. Further research is warranted to determine whether ucOC and cOC are suitable biomarkers for cardiometabolic risk in men.

Sleep duration is associated with vitamin D deficiency in older women living in Macao, China: A pilot cross-sectional study.

Chinese women are known to have both a high prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MetS) and vitamin D deficiency (serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) <50 nmol/l). Associations between sleep duration and circulating 25OHD have recently been reported but, to our knowledge, these associations have not been studied in older Chinese populations. We thus investigated whether sleep duration was associated with vitamin D status in a population from Macao, China, and whether sleep duration modified the association between MetS and vitamin D deficiency. In 207 older (>55 years) Macanese, anthropometry, blood samples and validated questionnaires, including sleep duration and cardiovascular risk factors, were simultaneously collected. On multivariable categorical analyses, those women, not men, who had short sleep duration (≤6 hours (h)) were at a 2-fold risk for vitamin D deficiency (both <50 nmol/L and <37 nmol/L; OR = 1.94, 95%CI 1.29-2.92; OR = 2.05, 95%CI 1.06-3.98, respectively) and those who had longer sleep duration (>8 h) were 3-fold more likely to have vitamin D deficiency (OR = 3.07, 95%CI 1.47-6.39; OR = 2.75, 95%CI 1.08-7.00, respectively) compared to those with normal sleep duration (6-8 h). Both women and men with MetS were 2-fold more likely to have vitamin D deficiency (women: OR = 2.04, 95%CI 1.31-3.17; OR = 2.15, 95%CI 1.11-4.17, respectively; men: OR = 2.01, 95%CI 1.23-3.28; OR = 2.04, 95%CI 1.00-4.29, respectively). Moreover, women with both short sleep duration and MetS had an increased risk of vitamin D deficiency (OR = 3.26, 95%CI 1.10-9.64). These associations were not found in those with longer sleep. Men with longer sleep and MetS had a 5-fold risk of vitamin D deficiency (OR = 5.22; 95%CI 2.70-10.12). This association was non-significant for men with shorter sleep. We conclude that both short and long sleep duration were associated with vitamin D deficiency in older Chinese women. Further research is needed in larger cohorts or with intervention studies to further examine the associations between reduced sleep, metabolic syndrome and vitamin D deficiency.

Osteocalcin and measures of adiposity: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies.

Osteocalcin, the osteoblast-derived protein, has been shown to be modulated in patients with problematic glucose metabolism. Our systematic review and meta-analysis found that in humans, higher blood osteocalcin level is associated with lower body indices of fat. PURPOSE/INTRODUCTION: Osteocalcin (OC) was found to be inversely correlated with measures of glucose and energy metabolism, with some groups suggesting the undercarboxylated form (ucOC) to be metabolically active, although the link is not clear, especially in humans. Given obesity is a major risk factor for metabolic disorders, we aimed to assess the correlation between OC and two measures of body weight: body mass index (BMI) and percentage body fat (%BF). METHODS: MEDLINE and EMBASE were searched to identify observational studies in adult populations that reported the crude correlation coefficients (r) between OC and BMI and %BF. Pool r were obtained using random-effects models. RESULTS: Fifty-one publications were included in this analysis. Both total OC (TOC) (pooled r = - 0.151, 95% CI - 0.17, - 0.130; I2 = 52%) and ucOC (pooled r = - 0.060, 95% CI - 0.103, - 0.016; I2 = 54%) were inversely correlated with BMI. The pooled r between TOC and BMI in Caucasian-and-other-regions (r = - 0.187) were stronger than those in Asian populations (r = - 0.126; intra-group p = 0.002; R2 = 0.21). The mean/median BMI of the reported cohort was the major contributor to between-study heterogeneity in correlation between TOC/ucOC and BMI (R2 = 0.28 and 0.77, respectively). Both TOC and ucOC were also inversely correlated with %BF (TOC: pooled r = - 0.185, 95% CI - 0.257 to - 0.112; ucOC: pooled r = - 0.181, 95% CI - 0.258 to - 0.101). CONCLUSION: Higher OC and ucOC were correlated with lower BMI and %BF. The inverse correlations between TOC/ucOC and BMI appear to be affected by ethnicity and obesity status.

Dietary fat and risk of renal cell carcinoma in the USA: a case-control study.

An increased risk of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) has been linked with obesity. However, there is limited information about the contribution of dietary fat and fat-related food groups to RCC risk. A population-based case-control study of 406 cases and 2434 controls aged 40-85 years was conducted in Iowa (1986-89). For 323 cases and 1820 controls from the present study, information on dietary intake from foods high in fat nutrients and other lifestyle factors was obtained using a mailed questionnaire. Cancer risks were estimated by OR and 95 % CI, adjusting for age, sex, smoking, obesity, hypertension, physical activity, alcohol and vegetable intake and tea and coffee consumption. In all nutrient analyses, energy density estimates were used. Dietary nutrient intake of animal fat, saturated fat, oleic acid and cholesterol was associated with an elevated risk of RCC (OR = 1.9, 95 % CI 1.3, 2.9, P trend < 0.001; OR = 2.6, 95 % CI 1.6, 4.0, P trend < 0.001; OR = 1.9, 95 % CI 1.2, 2.9, P trend = 0.01; OR = 1.9, 95 % CI 1.3, 2.8, P trend = 0.006, respectively, for the top quartile compared with the bottom quartile of intake). Increased risks were also associated with high-fat spreads, red and cured meats and dairy products (OR = 2.0, 95 % CI 1.4, 3.0, P trend = 0.001; OR = 1.7, 95 % CI 1.0, 2.2, P trend = 0.01; OR = 1.8, 95 % CI 1.2, 2.7, P trend = 0.02; OR = 1.6, 95 % CI 1.1, 2.3, P trend = 0.02, respectively). In both the food groups and nutrients, there was a significant dose-response with increased intake. Our data also indicated that the association of RCC with high-fat spreads may be stronger among individuals with hypertension. These findings deserve further investigation in prospective studies.

Effects of Vitamin D Status and Supplements on Anthropometric and Biochemical Indices in a Clinical Setting: A Retrospective Study.

CONTEXT: Obesity and low vitamin D status are linked. It is not clear that weight loss through lifestyle intervention is influenced by vitamin D status. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of baseline vitamin D status and vitamin D supplementation on weight loss and associated parameters for participants on a weight loss program in a primary care setting. DESIGN: A retrospective analysis of clinical records of patients who underwent an individually tailored weight loss program at a single dietetic clinic in Sydney, Australia. SETTING: Primary care centers. PATIENTS: 205 overweight and obese men and women aged from 18 to 50 years. INTERVENTIONS: Patients were referred to a dietetic clinic for a weight loss program. Patients with low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) concentrations at baseline were advised to increase sun exposure and take multivitamins supplemented with 2000 IU or 4000 IU per day of vitamin D3, according to the preference of their primary care physician. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Clinical parameters of weight, height, waist circumference, and serum 25(OH)D, as well as blood pressure and fasting lipid profile were collected from both baseline and three-month follow-up consultations. RESULTS: Subjects with sufficient baseline 25(OH)D levels (≥50 nmol/L) experienced significantly greater weight loss (-7.7 ± 5.9 kg vs. -4.2 ± 3.3 kg) and reductions in BMI (-2.6 ± 1.8 kg/m2 vs. -1.5 ± 1.1 kg/m2) and waist circumference (-5.2 ± 3.5 cm vs. -3.1 ± 3.1 cm) as compared with those who were vitamin D insufficient at baseline (p < 0.001 for all). Vitamin D insufficient patients who were supplemented with daily 2000 IU or 4000 IU vitamin D experienced significantly greater decreases in weight (-5.3 ± 3.6 kg vs. -2.3 ± 1.6 kg), BMI (-1.9 ± 1.2 kg/m2 vs. -0.8 ± 0.6 kg/m2) and waist circumference (-4.2 ± 3.4 cm vs. -1.2 ± 1.3 cm) as compared with those not supplemented (p < 0.001 for all). We also observed a greater decrease in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (-0.4 ± 0.5 mmol/L vs. -0.2 ± 0.5 mmol/L) in subjects insufficient at baseline and supplemented as compared with those insufficient at baseline and not supplemented (p < 0.01). CONCLUSION: In a weight loss setting in a dietetic clinic, adequate vitamin D status at baseline, or achieved at three months through supplementation, was associated with significantly greater improvement of anthropometric measures. The study has implications for the management of vitamin D status in obese or overweight patients undergoing weight loss programs.

Body Mass Index Increases With Ageing and Risk Factors for Overweight/Obesity in a Representative Macau Population.

The aim of this study was to investigate trends of body mass index (BMI) with age in westernizing Macau and to make comparisons with Australian data. A representative random sample (n = 1406, 18-93 years, 55% female) from Macau was recruited in 2012. The Australian sample was extracted from the Australian Health Survey 2011-2012 (n = 7958, 18 to ≥85 years, 52% female). BMI in Australians was greater than Macanese, mean difference 4.4 kg/m2 ( P < .001). While BMI increases steadily with ageing in each population, the plateau for Macau subjects appears 5 to 10 years earlier than Australians. Prevalence of overweight/obesity in young Macanese adults (18-40 years) was 25% (men) and 22% (women), with the greatest increase in BMI from age 25 to 39 years and 24 to 45 years in men and women, respectively. BMI shifts in younger Macanese men and women, which may reflect emerging lifestyle and nutrition transitions, are a future population health concern in Macau.

Determinants of vitamin D status of healthy office workers in Sydney, Australia.

Low vitamin D status, measured as 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD), has been linked to increased risk of osteoporosis and other disorders. Due to the indoor nature of office work, there may be an increased risk of 25OHD deficiency in this group. The aim of the current study was to evaluate seasonal variations of 25OHD in a population of healthy office workers, and to assess the effect of sun exposure behaviour, skin pigmentation, physical activity (PA) and dietary intake on serum 25OHD concentrations. We assessed the vitamin D status of healthy office workers in Sydney, Australia, at the end of summer (n = 103) and then at the end of winter (n = 71). Data on anthropometry, PA, dietary intake, sun exposure and skin phototype were collected along with blood samples. Serum 25OHD was measured by radioimmunoassay. Mean 25OHD concentration in late summer was 68 ± 27 nmol/L (range: 24-160 nmol/L), and in late winter was 59 ± 32 nmol/L (range: 15-174 nmol/L). 25OHD deficiency (<50 nmol/L) was observed in 29% and 42% of participants at end-summer and end-winter, respectively. Almost 10% of individuals were extremely deficient (<25 nmol/L) at end-winter, particularly those with dark skin (phototypes 5 and 6). Independent predictors of end-summer 25OHD were skin phototype (p < 0.02), summer sun exposure (p < 0.001) and skin area exposed (p = 0.005). The strongest predictor of end-winter 25OHD was end-summer 25OHD concentration (p < 0.001). If this was excluded from the model, the independent predictors of end-winter 25OHD were skin phototype (p < 0.01), sun exposure in winter (p = 0.01) and oily fish consumption (p < 0.05). Sunscreen use was significantly associated with higher vitamin D status (p < 0.05) as those who used sunscreen were also more likely to spend time outdoors. We conclude that sun exposure is beneficial for vitamin D status even with sunscreen use. Vitamin D supplements should be targeted to individuals who are darker skinned or unable to obtain adequate sun exposure, particularly during the winter months.

Vitamin D levels in childhood and adolescence and cardiovascular risk factors in a cohort of healthy Australian children.

As the prevalence of obesity appears to be increasing in Australia's youth the overall objective of this study was to examine serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) concentrations in a cohort of 8-year-olds (n=249) followed up at age 15 (n=162) and explore associations between 25OHD with cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors in these populations. This was done in two stages: the first, two cross-sectional analyses (at ages 8 and 15); and the second, a prospective analysis from age 8 to 15. At both ages data on 25OHD, blood lipids, and anthropometry were measured. Date of blood draw was used as a surrogate of sunlight exposure. Results were then analysed by multivariate linear analyses taking into account interaction and confounding. Mean 25OHD concentrations decreased from 94±25nmol/L to 63±16nmol/L between age 8 and 15 years (p<0.001). On cross-sectional analysis of 8year olds, no CVD risk factor was found to be significantly associated with 25OHD concentrations. On cross-sectional analysis of 15year olds lower 25OHD levels were significantly associated with higher body fat (adjusted ß=-0.24, p=0.003). Prospectively, lower 25OHD levels in 8-year-old boys, but not girls, were significantly associated with higher blood total cholesterol (adjusted ß=-0.28, p=0.040) and triglyceride levels (adjusted ß=-0.33, p=0.030) at age 15. The limitation of these data is the relatively small sample sizes, however these results suggest that low 25OHD in childhood needs to be further investigated in larger cohort studies as there may be later cardiovascular consequences in adolescence.

Vitamin D status and hypertension: a review.

Vitamin D is a steroid prohormone synthesized in the skin following ultraviolet exposure and also achieved through supplemental or dietary intake. While there is strong evidence for its role in maintaining bone and muscle health, there has been recent debate regarding the role of vitamin D deficiency in hypertension based on conflicting epidemiological evidence. Thus, we conducted a scoping systematic literature review and meta-analysis of all observational studies published up to early 2014 in order to map trends in the evidence of this association. Mixed-effect meta-analysis was performed to pool risk estimates from ten prospective studies (n=58,262) (pooled risk for incident hypertension, relative risk [RR] =0.76 (0.63-0.90) for top vs bottom category of 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25OHD]) and from 19 cross-sectional studies (n=90,535) (odds ratio [OR] =0.79 (0.73-0.87)). Findings suggest that the better the assessed quality of the respective study design, the stronger the relationship between higher 25OHD levels and hypertension risk (RR =0.67 (0.51-0.88); OR =0.77 (0.72-0.89)). There was significant heterogeneity among the findings for both prospective and cross-sectional studies, but no evidence of publication bias was shown. There was no increased risk of hypertension when the participants were of older age or when they were vitamin D deficient. Younger females showed strong associations between high 25OHD levels and hypertension risk, especially in prospective studies (RR =0.36 (0.18-0.72); OR =0.62 (0.44-0.87)). Despite the accumulating evidence of a consistent link between vitamin D and blood pressure, these data are observational, so questions still remain in relation to the causality of this relationship. Further studies either combining existing raw data from available cohort studies or conducting further Mendelian analyses are needed to determine whether this represents a causal association. Large randomized controlled trials are also needed to determine whether vitamin supplementation may be beneficial in the prevention or the treatment of hypertension.

Prevalence, awareness, treatment and control of hypertension in Macau: results from a cross-sectional epidemiological study in Macau, China.

BACKGROUND: Awareness of hypertension, as well as its prevalence, treatment, and control status, has not been comprehensively investigated in Macau Special Administrative Region (SAR), China. METHODS: A survey was conducted on a randomly sampled population of 1,410 participants (n = 638 men) aged 18-93 years in 2012. Blood pressure was individually measured twice. Awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension were assessed by interview-administered questionnaire. RESULTS: Prevalence of hypertension was 34% in Macau, similar to the United States (30%) and United Kingdom (31%). Among hypertensives, 69% were aware of their condition, 59% were treated, and 30% were adequately controlled. Older age (≥50 years; odds ratio (OR) = 5.3; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 4.6-6.1), being of the male sex (OR = 2.2; 95% CI = 1.9-2.5), having retired (OR = 2.0; 95% CI = 1.8-2.3), being married (OR = 1.5; 95% CI = 1.3-1.9), having a low level of education in women (OR = 1.5; 95% CI = 1.1-2.1), Pinteraction = 0.01), and lack of salt awareness (OR = 1.1; 95% CI = 1.0-1.3) were associated with hypertension. Older age, having retired, and being married were also associated with higher awareness and treatment rates. Those who were older and married were better controlled. These demographic factors differed by sex. Those who had some knowledge of salt intake were more likely to have higher hypertension awareness, treatment, and control rates. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of hypertension in Macau in 2012 has increased compared with 2006 (28%) and is comparable with prevalence rates in developed countries. Specific health promotion campaigns related to knowledge of risk factors such as salt intake and smoking may be useful for hypertension prevention and to improve hypertension awareness, treatment, and control rates.

Modifiable risk factors including sunlight exposure and fish consumption are associated with risk of hypertension in a large representative population from Macau.

Chinese populations are known to be at risk for vitamin D deficiency, with some evidence that this is due to lack of exposure to sunlight. Vitamin D deficiency and/or low sun exposure have been associated with higher incidence of hypertension in Caucasians. Thus, we investigated these associations in a Chinese population with a high rate of hypertension. From a random household survey of 1410 residents aged ≥18 years, height, weight and blood pressure were measured and demographic, exercise and dietary data were collected, as well as estimated hours of sunlight exposure on weekdays and weekends (in winter and summer). Modifiable predictors of hypertension in these data were lack of sunlight exposure and low intake of fish as well as smoking, obesity and lack of exercise. When investigated in a linear model, sunlight exposure was negatively associated with hypertension (ß=-0.072, p<0.001) as was physical activity (ß=-0.021, p<0.001) and fish consumption (ß=-0.177, p<0.001). In contrast body mass index (weight/height(2)) was positively associated with hypertension (ß=+0.62, p<0.001), as were pack-years of smoking (ß=+0.27, p<0.001). On multivariate categorical analysis taking into account demographic risk factors in these data (age, gender and occupation) having more than half an hour's sun exposure per day compared to none was associated with less hypertension (OR=0.6, 95% CI: 0.4-0.8). Similarly, consuming either oily fish or seafood more than four times per week compared to less was also associated with less hypertension (oily fish (OR=0.4, 95% CI: 0.3-0.5); seafood consumption (OR=0.8, 95% CI: 0.7-0.9)). Having daily moderate physical activity compared to none was also associated with a lower risk of hypertension (OR=0.8, 95% CI: 0.7-0.9). In contrast, being obese compared to normal weight and having more than five pack-years of smoking compared to none were associated with a higher risk of hypertension (OR=4.6, 95% CI: 3.7-5.7; OR=1.4, 95% CI: 1.0-1.8, respectively). The major new findings of this study are that more sun exposure and high weekly fish consumption (especially oily fish) may be potentially modifiable independent factors for protecting against risk of hypertension in this population. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled '16th Vitamin D Workshop'.

Hypertension, pulse, and other cardiovascular risk factors and vitamin D status in Finnish men.

BACKGROUND: Debate exists about the relationship between hypovitaminosis D and cardiovascular (CVD) risk. METHODS: This study investigated baseline (n=2,271) 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) and baseline and 4 year (n=1,957) CVD risk in a cohort of Finnish middle-aged male smokers. RESULTS: The prevalences of measured hypertension, high pulse rate, diabetes, and coronary heart disease were 63%, 16%, 5%, and 10% at baseline and were 64%, 20%, 6%, and 16% at 4 years after baseline. The mean 25(OH)D was 41±18 nmol/L. At baseline, systolic blood pressure (ß = -0.048; P = 0.02), and pulse rate (ß = -0.043; P = 0.04) were both associated with lower 25(OH)D levels but not coronary heart disease or diabetes prevalence. On remeasuring CVD risk 4 years after baseline, the only significant association with baseline 25(OH)D levels was high pulse rate (ß = -0.077; P = 0.001). In addition, a higher 25(OH)D level at baseline was associated with a change in pulse rate (ß = -0.055; P = 0.01). These trends for hypertension (baseline) and high pulse rate (baseline and 4 years after baseline) were also seen on adjusted categorical analysis (P trend < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Vitamin D deficiency at baseline was associated with hypertension in Finnish male smokers, but not after 4 years. These results are consistent with recent findings in other large cohort studies with measured blood pressure. Change in pulse rate over time continued to be significantly associated with lower 25(OH)D baseline levels; this new finding should be investigated further.

Vitamin D status is associated with sun exposure, vitamin D and calcium intake, acculturation and attitudes in immigrant East Asian women living in Sydney.

Known determinants of vitamin D status (measured in serum as 25(OH)Dnmol/L) are exposure to sunlight and intake of vitamin D, either from foods or vitamin supplements. Recently, low vitamin D status in East Asian Australian immigrants has been reported. Thus the aim of this study was to investigate associations with vitamin D status in East Asian Australian immigrant women. In this cross-sectional study of women (n=152 aged 18-92), 25(OH)D levels were measured from serum samples (radio-immuno assay). Demographics, sun exposure patterns, dietary intake and acculturation factors were obtained by questionnaire. In spring, 53% of the study population had serum 25(OH)D levels <50nmol/L (deficiency); whereas in summer only 19% were deficient. Associations with vitamin D deficiency were younger age, higher education, more sun protection behavior, fewer minutes of sun exposure on weekends, low vitamin D and calcium intake through foods or supplements and less acculturation to Australian lifestyle. After multivariate adjustment, those who had no intake of vitamin D supplements (OR=5.6, CI=1.4-22), less sunlight exposure on weekends (OR=2.7, CI=1.0-7.3) and lower acculturation to Australian lifestyle (OR=2.5, CI=1.0-6.3) had increased risk of being deficient in vitamin D. Thus there is a need for vitamin D education in this "at-risk" population. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'Vitamin D Workshop'.