A narrative review of the well-being and burnout of U.S. community pharmacists.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this narrative review is to summarize the literature on well-being and burnout among community pharmacists in the U.S. and provide recommendations for future research. METHODS: Relevant literature was identified by searching PubMed for combinations of keywords such as "burnout" and "well-being" combined with "pharmacists." Titles and abstracts were reviewed for relevancy, and full text articles were reviewed when applicable. RESULTS: While burnout is defined by its 3 core symptoms of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and low personal accomplishment, well-being is more challenging to define and measure, which has led to it being less studied. Community pharmacists faced high rates of burnout, low quality of life (QOL), and extreme fatigue prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, a situation that has likely only worsened. Factors such as workload, the type of community pharmacy, the level of education or training of the pharmacist, and stress may be some of the contributors to high rates of burnout. Clinician burnout may be related to high rates of mental health disorders seen in pharmacists, may impact patient safety and satisfaction, and may affect productivity and costs to employers and the healthcare system overall. There has been no research into interventions or strategies to support well-being and reduce burnout among community pharmacists, but having a workplace that is perceived as supporting well-being may have some impact. Recommendations for future research include the following: (1) define well-being, (2) explore why various factors support well-being or contribute to burnout, (3) determine the impact of community pharmacists experiencing well-being or burnout, and (4) develop strategies to support well-being and reduce burnout that are specific to community pharmacy. CONCLUSION: There is a sparsity of evidence regarding community pharmacist well-being and burnout. Further research is needed to generate the evidence needed to support interventions that are specific to the unique work setting of community pharmacists.

Pregnancy-related risk factors and receipt of postpartum care among Texas Medicaid pregnant enrollees: Opportunities for pharmacist services.

BACKGROUND: The United States (US) experiences the highest rate of maternal mortality of similar countries. Postpartum care (PPC) focused on chronic disease management is potentially lifesaving, especially among pregnancies complicated by risk factors such as diabetes, hypertension, and mental health conditions (MHCs), which are conditions in which pharmacists can have an impact. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the prevalence of maternal mortality risk factors and their relationships with receipt of PPC among Texas Medicaid enrollees. METHODS: A retrospective study included women with a delivery between 3/25/2014-11/1/2019 who were continuously enrolled in Texas Medicaid during the study period from 84 days pre-delivery to 60 days post-delivery. PPC was defined as ≥1 visit associated with postpartum follow-up services. Maternal mortality risk factors (diabetes, hypertension, and MHCs) during and after pregnancy were identified using diagnoses and medication utilization. Age, race/ethnicity, cesarean delivery, and preterm birth served as covariates. Multivariable logistic regression was used to address the study objective. RESULTS: The sample (N = 617,010) was 26.5±5.7 years, primarily (52.8%) Hispanic, and 33.0% had cesarean deliveries and 9.3% had preterm births. Risk factor prevalence included: diabetes (14.0%), hypertension (14.3%), and MHCs during (6.3%) and after (9.1%) pregnancy. A majority (77.9%) had a PPC visit within 60 days of delivery. The odds of receiving PPC were 1.2 times higher for patients with diabetes (OR = 1.183; 95% CI = 1.161-1.206; P < 0.0001), 1.1 times higher for patients with hypertension (OR = 1.109; 95% CI= 1.089-1.130; P < 0.0001), and 1.1 times higher for patients with MHCs (OR=1.138; 95% CI = 1.108-1.170; P < 0.0001) than patients without, respectively. CONCLUSION: Over three-quarters of Texas Medicaid pregnant enrollees received PPC within 60 days of delivery and risk factors were prevalent and predictive of receipt of PPC. Pharmacists can have a positive impact on maternal health by addressing hypertension, diabetes, and MHC risk factors.

Provider perceptions of barriers to biosimilar utilization in community oncology practices.

BACKGROUND: Biosimilars reduce the burden of cost on patients and payers, and so doing, increase access to life-saving care. However, biosimilar uptake in the US has been inconsistent. OBJECTIVES: This study assessed provider perceptions of barriers to biosimilar use and their relationships to utilization rates in a large, national oncology network and examined if perceptions differed by demographic and practice characteristics. METHODS: A 28-item survey was administered to 400 network physicians, pharmacists, nurses, and administrators, spanning 25 provider groups, and measured 1) barriers to use categorized into 4 subscales-payer-related, provider-related, operational, and patient-related, using a Likert scale ranging from Never (1) to Always (5); and 2) demographic and practice characteristics. Utilization rates were assessed using aggregated patient-level drug administration data found in the electronic health record system. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to describe responses and assess relationships between variables. RESULTS: A total of 46 responses were analyzed, with a response rate of 11.5%. Most respondents were female (55.6%), physicians (52.2%), with over 6 years of experience (67%). A majority worked in practices participating in the Oncology Care Model (86.7%) and received continuing education on biosimilars (84.8%). Overall scale score was moderately low (mean=2.31), indicating low levels of perceived barriers. The lowest subscale score was operational barriers (mean=2.21), while payer-related barriers was the highest (mean=2.78). Perceptions of barriers did not differ based on demographic and practice characteristics. The average biosimilar utilization rate was 66.2%, with practices in the West administering biosimilars most frequently (71.8%). Utilization was not impacted by perceptions of barriers. CONCLUSION: Perceived barriers to biosimilar utilization were not common and not associated with utilization. Infrequent impediments to utilization may be associated with network-wide emphasis on continuing education and a value-based care environment. Future research should consider other practice- and patient-level factors that may impact biosimilar utilization.

The smallest likely pathogenic duplication of a SOX9 enhancer identified to date in a family with 46,XX testicular differences of sex development.

Copy number variants that duplicate distal upstream enhancer elements of the SOX9 gene cause 46,XX testicular differences of sex development (DSD) which is characterized by a 46,XX karyotype in an individual presenting with either ambiguous genitalia or genitalia with varying degrees of virilization, including those resembling typical male genitalia. Reported duplications in this region range in size from 24 to 780 kilobases (kb). Here we report a family with two affected individuals, the proband and his maternal uncle, harboring a 3.7 kb duplication of a SOX9 enhancer identified by clinical genome sequencing. Prior fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) for SRY and a multi-gene panel for ambiguous genitalia were non-diagnostic. The unaffected mother also carries this duplication, consistent with previously described incomplete penetrance. To our knowledge, this is the smallest duplication identified to-date, most of which resides in a 5.2 kb region that has been previously shown to possess enhancer activity that promotes the expression of SOX9. The duplication was confirmed by quantitative-PCR and shown to be in tandem by bidirectional Sanger sequencing breakpoint analysis. This finding highlights the importance of non-coding variant interrogation in suspected genetic disorders.

Evaluating the relationship between patient activation and health-related quality of life (HRQOL) in patients with pancreatic cancer (PwPC).

PURPOSE: Advanced pancreatic cancer is synonymous with a high mortality rate, debilitating symptom profile, and minimal prolongation in overall survival. Therefore, health-related quality of life (HRQOL) is important in patients with pancreatic cancer (PwPC). In chronic conditions, patient activation is positively associated and higher HRQOL. However, no known study has evaluated patient activation, HRQOL, and their association in PwPC. METHODS: A 43-item cross-sectional survey assessed patient activation and HRQOL of patients with locally advanced and metastatic pancreatic cancer undergoing chemotherapy. Variables were analyzed descriptively, and relationships were assessed using bivariate statistics (sig p < 0.05). RESULTS: Fifty-six patients participating in the study had an average age of 69.5 ± 11.1 years, and the majority were females (51.8%), Caucasians (61.8%), married/partnered (64.3%), and had at least a college degree (59%). Almost half were at stage 4 (48.2%), and most were newly diagnosed (66.1%). Mean patient activation score was 63.5 ± 17.2 (scale range: 0-100), with most at higher activation levels of 3 or 4 (66.7%). Mean HRQOL score of 41.0 ± 12.7 (scale range: 0-72) was low. Patient activation levels, age, education level, and gender explained 21% of variation in overall HRQOL scores. Patients at activation level 4 had significantly higher overall HRQOL versus those at lower activation (level 1 or 2). Higher patient activation was significantly associated with having either private insurance only or multiple insurances and being partnered. CONCLUSION: Patient activation significantly predicted HRQOL in PwPC despite the low sample size. Initiatives to increase patient activation should focus on patients of low socioeconomic status and those without partner support.

Perceived discrimination in the community pharmacy: A cross-sectional, national survey of adults.

BACKGROUND: Discrimination experiences have been documented in various health care settings; little is known about discrimination experiences in the community pharmacy setting. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to (1) describe perceived everyday discrimination, including racial discrimination, in community pharmacies, (2) examine factors associated with perceived everyday discrimination, (3) examine the relationship between perceived racial discrimination and delays in picking up prescriptions, and (4) examine the relationship between perceived racial discrimination and forgoing prescriptions. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was conducted in 2021 with a U.S. Qualtrics research panel. The 9-item Everyday Discrimination Scale (EDS) was used to assess perceived discrimination (range 9-45, higher scores indicate higher perceived discrimination). One question asked whether respondents perceived racial discrimination. Two questions asked whether respondents delayed or forwent getting a prescription(s) in the past year. Descriptive statistics were calculated for all variables. A generalized linear model examined factors associated with perceived discrimination; logistic regression examined the relationships between perceived racial discrimination and delays in getting or forgoing prescription(s). RESULTS: Participants (n = 578) were 40.2 (±16.5) years old. Most were white (55.5%), 24.4% were black, and 29.4% were Hispanic or Latino. The mean EDS score was 16.5 (±8.8); 18.7% perceived racial discrimination. Overall, 36.3% and 33.0% reported a delay in getting and forgoing their prescriptions, respectively. Age (P < 0.0001), sexual identity or orientation (P = 0.010), ethnicity (P = 0.049), annual income (P = 0.012), and prescription insurance (P = 0.008) were associated with perceived discrimination. Those with perceived racial discrimination had significantly higher odds of a delay in getting their prescription(s) than those without perceived racial discrimination (odds ratio 2.6 [95% CI 1.3-5.3]). CONCLUSIONS: Study findings elucidate discrimination experiences in the community pharmacy and the impact of racial discrimination on individuals' decision in obtaining their medications in a timely manner. Community pharmacy staff need to recognize their implicit biases and obtain training on best practices that promote equitable treatment of diverse patients.

A clinical laboratory's experience using GeneMatcher-Building stronger gene-disease relationships.

The use of whole-genome sequencing (WGS) has accelerated the pace of gene discovery and highlighted the need for open and collaborative data sharing in the search for novel disease genes and variants. GeneMatcher (GM) is designed to facilitate connections between researchers, clinicians, health-care providers, and others to help in the identification of additional patients with variants in the same candidate disease genes. The Illumina Clinical Services Laboratory offers a WGS test for patients with suspected rare and undiagnosed genetic disease  and regularly submits potential candidate genes to GM to strengthen gene-disease relationships. We describe our experience with GM, including criteria for evaluation of candidate genes, and our workflow for the submission and review process. We have made 69 submissions, 36 of which are currently active. Ten percent of submissions have resulted in publications, with an additional 14 submissions part of ongoing collaborations and expected to result in a publication.

General versus disease-specific health literacy in patients with breast cancer: a cross-sectional study.

Health literacy is recognized as a critical factor affecting communication across the continuum of cancer care and plays a key role in patients' ability to meaningfully discuss their condition with healthcare providers. However, there is no consensus on the best approach to measure health literacy in clinical practice. The aims of this study were to compare general and disease-specific measurements of health literacy in patients with breast cancer as well as examine their relationships with patient-provider communication. During office visits, patients with HER-2 + breast cancer who received care at oncology clinics with value-based models of care completed a survey including the 6-item cancer health literacy tool (CHLT-6), 6-item newest vital sign (NVS), 2 items measuring difficulty of patient-provider communication, and 11 demographic/clinical items. The mean age of 146 participants was 57.1 ± 10.8 years. Most participants had adequate general health literacy as measured by the NVS (79%) and a high probability of adequate cancer health literacy (≥ 0.7) as measured by the CHLT-6 (92%). Most patients easily communicated with healthcare providers (90.2%) and understood information they provided (83.5%). However, there was no significant relationship between patient-provider communication and health literacy. Both the CHLT-6 and NVS may be useful tools to assess the health literacy of patients with cancer in clinical practice. Study findings of adequate health literacy and ease of communication might have been influenced by the value-based care models adopted by participating clinics. Further research in more diverse samples of patients with cancer and different types of oncology practice settings is warranted.

Opioid harm reduction: A scoping review of physician and system-level gaps in knowledge, education, and practice.

Background: Harm reduction includes treatment and prevention approaches rather than abstinence, as a public health strategy for mitigating the opioid epidemic. Harm reduction is a new strategy for many healthcare professionals, and gaps in knowledge and practices may lead to barriers to optimal treatment. Our objective was to identify and describe gaps in physicians' knowledge, education, and practice in harm reduction strategies related to opioid overdose. Methods: We searched the PubMed, CINAHL, and Web of Science databases for articles published between 2015 and 2021, published in English, containing empirical evidence, addressing opioid harm reduction, and identifying gaps in physicians' knowledge, education, or practice. Results: Thirty-seven studies were included. Studies examined how physicians' perceptions or stigma influenced harm reduction efforts and addressed clinical knowledge gaps in overdose treatment and prevention and OUD treatment. Less than half of the studies addressed access issues at the system level, above the individual healthcare professional. Conclusion: Individual-level interventions should be addressed with professional continuing education and curricular-based changes through experiential and interprofessional education. System-level gaps can be remedied by increasing patient access to care, creating policies favorable to harm reduction, and extending resources to provide harm reduction strategies.

Pharmacists' training, perceived roles, and actions associated with dispensing controlled substance prescriptions.

OBJECTIVES: To examine situations that prompt pharmacists to access a prescription drug monitoring program (PDMP) database and management of opioid abuse/addiction; assess pharmacists' actions when abuse is suspected; describe pharmacists' tasks when dispensing controlled substance prescriptions (CSPs); and their continuing pharmacy education (CPE). DESIGN Cross-sectional mail survey of 1,000 randomly selected pharmacists. SETTING: Texas from February 2012 to April 2012. PARTICIPANTS: 1,000 Texas community pharmacists. INTERVENTION: Mail survey instrument. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Prompts to use a PDMP and pharmacists' views actions, and related CPE programs. RESULTS The usable response rate was 26.2%. Pharmacists were more supportive of mandated PDMP use by physicians than by pharmacists (mean ± SD 4.1 ± 1.2 versus 3.2 ± 1.5; P <0.001), based on a 5-point Likert scale (1, strongly disagree, to 5, strongly agree). Most pharmacists would be prompted to use a PDMP if the prescription contains mistakes (68.1%) or the patient requests an early refill (66.3%). Bivariate statistics showed that men pharmacists, those with BSPharm degrees, and pharmacists ≥50 years of age reported a greater number of CPE hours related to prescription opioid abuse and pain management. An analysis of variance showed that pharmacy owners reported significantly more (P <0.05) CPE compared with manager and staff pharmacists. CONCLUSION: Older pharmacists with a BSPharm degree may be more willing to provide counseling to patients with opioid addiction based on their work experience and additional CPE related to controlled substances. As PDMP use becomes more prevalent, pharmacists should be prepared to interact and counsel patients identified with aberrant controlled prescription drug use and properly deliver pain management care. Additionally, schools of pharmacy curricula must prepare new pharmacists to prevent abuse and diversion, as well as intervene when aberrant use is identified.

Spanish-speaking patients' satisfaction with clinical pharmacists' communication skills and demonstration of cultural sensitivity.

OBJECTIVE To assess Spanish-speaking patients' satisfaction with their clinical pharmacists' communication skills and demonstration of cultural sensitivity, while controlling for patients' sociodemographic, clinical, and communication factors, as well as pharmacist factors, and to identify clinical pharmacists' cultural factors that are important to Spanish-speaking patients. DESIGN Cross-sectional study. SETTING Central Texas during August 2011 to May 2012. PARTICIPANTS Spanish-speaking patients of federally qualified health centers (FQHCs). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S) A Spanish-translated survey assessed Spanish-speaking patients' satisfaction with their clinical pharmacists' communication skills and demonstration of cultural sensitivity. RESULTS Spanish-speaking patients (N = 101) reported overall satisfaction with their clinical pharmacists' communication skills and cultural sensitivity. Patients also indicated that pharmacists' cultural rapport (e.g., ability to speak Spanish, respectfulness) was generally important to Spanish speakers. Multiple linear regression analyses showed that cultural rapport was significantly related to satisfaction with pharmacists' communication skills and demonstration of cultural sensitivity. CONCLUSION Overall, patients were satisfied with pharmacists' communication skills and cultural sensitivity. Patient satisfaction initiatives that include cultural rapport should be developed for pharmacists who provide care to Spanish-speaking patients with limited English proficiency.

Determinants of Human Papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination intentions among young adult college students using the theory of planned behavior.

Purpose: To determine college students' intentions to be Human Papillomavirus (HPV) vaccinated. Methods: The study was comprised of college students aged 18-45 years. A survey was developed based on the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). The significance of the TPB constructs-attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control-and an additional construct-knowledge-in predicting intention were assessed. Results: The regression model containing attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control accounted for 40% of the variance in intention. Attitude and subjective norms were significant predictors, while perceived behavioral control was not. Provider recommendation was the only significant covariate. Knowledge did not significantly contribute to the model. Discussion: The TPB was useful in predicting HPV vaccination intentions. A focus on attitude, subjective norms and provider recommendation may be useful in creating new or enhancing existing interventions.

A Qualitative Study on Perspectives of Parkinson's Disease Medications: Insights from Patient Focus Groups.

Purpose: Medication is an important component of the management of Parkinson's disease (PD), yet few studies investigate factors that inform medication decision-making from the perspective of those who use these therapies. This qualitative study aimed to better understand the medication experiences and perspectives of people with PD (PwPD). Patients and Methods: Thirty-two PwPD recruited from five large movement disorder clinics from five US states participated in 1-hour on-line focus groups in 2022. Thematic analysis was used to analyze the data. Results: Four primary themes (subthemes in parentheses) emerged concerning PD medications: (1) medication effectiveness (uncertainty, inconsistent effects, adjusting expectations); (2) medication burden (morning doses, timing challenges, constant reminder); (3) side effects (toleration, treatment, confusion with disease symptoms); and (4) preferences/requests (important attributes, therapy advancement). Conclusion: This study identified four core dimensions associated with PD medications from the perspective of PwPD. Results indicate the need for enhanced communication between providers and patients regarding PD medication to reduce the uncertainties and burden associated with PD medication regimens and promote better health outcomes for PwPD.

Impact of a psychoeducational intervention on willingness to seek help for depression among African American young adults.

Despite the success of psychoeducational interventions at improving willingness to seek professional help for mental illness, limited research explores the effect of culturally tailored psychoeducational interventions on African American (AA) college students. The objective of this study was to determine if exposure to a culturally relevant psychoeducational intervention impacted AA young adult attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, depression stigma, disclosure and willingness to seek help for depression. We conducted a one-group pre- and post-test intervention study of AA college students (N = 75). The 2.5-h intervention featured presentations, large-group discussions, videos, and active learning exercises and was guided by applying a cultural adaptation framework to an existing psychoeducational intervention. The self-administered surveys were created using the Theory of Planned Behavior as a guide. Data were analyzed using paired t-tests. A total of 70 participants completed both pre- and post-test surveys. Overall, willingness, attitude, and disclosure significantly increased after the intervention (p < .001). Additionally, depression stigma significantly decreased after the intervention, indicating fewer stigmatizing beliefs about depression (p < .001). Willingness to seek help for depression among AA college students can be improved through culturally relevant and interactive psychoeducational interventions. These interventions can also improve negative attitudes and perceived behavioral control toward seeking help and decrease stigmatizing beliefs. More research is needed to explore the longitudinal impact of culturally relevant psychoeducational interventions and how they may affect actual help-seeking behavior among AA college students.

A framework for the evaluation and reporting of incidental findings in clinical genomic testing.

Currently, there are no widely accepted recommendations in the genomics field guiding the return of incidental findings (IFs), defined here as unexpected results that are unrelated to the indication for testing. Consequently, reporting policies for IFs among laboratories offering genomic testing are variable and may lack transparency. Herein we describe a framework developed to guide the evaluation and return of IFs encountered in probands undergoing clinical genome sequencing (cGS). The framework prioritizes clinical significance and actionability of IFs and follows a stepwise approach with stopping points at which IFs may be recommended for return or not. Over 18 months, implementation of the framework in a clinical laboratory facilitated the return of actionable IFs in 37 of 720 (5.1%) individuals referred for cGS, which is reduced to 3.1% if glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency is excluded. This framework can serve as a model to standardize reporting of IFs identified during genomic testing.

Development of a comprehensive cardiovascular disease genetic risk assessment test.

Background: Despite monogenic and polygenic contributions to cardiovascular disease (CVD), genetic testing is not widely adopted, and current tests are limited by the breadth of surveyed conditions and interpretation burden. Methods: We developed a comprehensive clinical genome CVD test with semi-automated interpretation. Monogenic conditions and risk alleles were selected based on the strength of disease association and evidence for increased disease risk, respectively. Non-CVD secondary findings genes, pharmacogenomic (PGx) variants and CVD polygenic risk scores (PRS) were assessed for inclusion. Test performance was modeled using 2,594 genomes from the 1000 Genomes Project, and further investigated in 20 previously tested individuals. Results: The CVD genome test is composed of a panel of 215 CVD gene-disease pairs, 35 non-CVD secondary findings genes, 4 risk alleles or genotypes, 10 PGx genes and a PRS for coronary artery disease. Modeling of test performance using samples from the 1000 Genomes Project revealed ~6% of individuals with a monogenic finding in a CVD-associated gene, 6% with a risk allele finding, ~1% with a non-CVD secondary finding, and 93% with CVD-associated PGx variants. Assessment of blinded clinical samples showed complete concordance with prior testing. An average of 4 variants were reviewed per case, with interpretation and reporting time ranging from 9-96 min. Conclusions: A genome sequencing based CVD genetic risk assessment can provide comprehensive genetic disease and genetic risk information to patients with CVD. The semi-automated and limited interpretation burden suggest that this testing approach could be scaled to support population-level initiatives.

Consumer perceptions about a community pharmacy-based medication take back program.

The stockpiling and improper disposal of unused or expired medications has the potential to harm the environment and humans. Community-based medication take-back programs have been established to ensure proper disposal of unused drugs; however, few of these programs present consumers' perceptions about the program. Therefore, the main aims of this pilot study are 1) to assess the users' and non-users' perceptions about a medication take-back program and 2) to determine if perceptions differ between users and non-users. The results are based on a survey administered to 35 users and 20 non-users of a medication take-back program located at a community pharmacy in Texas. The majority of users were participating in a take-back service for the first time. Though most non-users had never participated in a take-back program, they would consider participating in the future. All users viewed the medication take-back program as a valuable service, while nearly all (90%) non-users viewed the program as a potentially valuable service. The primary reason for participating in the service was to protect the environment. Most respondents (users and non-users) were likely to choose a pharmacy that provides the take-back service more than a pharmacy that does not. More than half of respondents positively viewed paying for the service on a per weight basis. In comparison to non-users, users were significantly older, had more favorable perceptions about paying for the service, and were more likely to choose a pharmacy that provides the service. This pilot study presents overall favorable user perceptions toward medication-take back services and supports the need to establish more community-based take back programs to meet the needs of consumers.

The state of disparities in opportunistic infection prophylaxis for blacks with HIV/AIDS.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this review is to identify and analyze published studies that have evaluated disparities for opportunistic infection (OI) prophylaxis between blacks and whites with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in the United States. METHODS: The authors conducted a web-based search of MEDLINE (1950-2009) to identify original research articles evaluating the use of OI prophylaxis between blacks and whites with HIV/AIDS. The search was conducted utilizing the following MeSH headings and search terms alone and in combination: HIV, AIDS, Black, race, ethnicity, disparities, differences, access, opportunistic infection, and prophylaxis. The search was then expanded to include any relevant articles from the referenced citations of the articles that were retrieved from the initial search strategy. Of the 29 articles retrieved from the literature search, 19 articles were excluded. RESULTS: Ten publications met inclusion criteria, collectively published between 1991 and 2005. The collective time periods of these studies spanned from 1987 to 2001. Four studies identified a race-based disparity in that blacks were less likely than whites to use OI prophylaxis, whereas 5 studies failed to identify such a relationship between race and OI prophylaxis. One study identified disparities for Mycobacterium avium complex prophylaxis, but not for Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia prophylaxis. CONCLUSIONS: The evidence regarding race-based disparities in OI prophylaxis is inconclusive. Additional research is warranted to explore potential race-based disparities in OI prophylaxis.

Exploratory study of community pharmacists' perceptions about new or transferred prescription incentives.

OBJECTIVES: To assess community pharmacists' perceptions of new or transferred prescription incentives on quality of care, pharmacy practice (e.g., workload), and patient base. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Texas from March through August 2010. PARTICIPANTS: Texas community pharmacists. INTERVENTION: In-person and online surveys. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Pharmacists' perceptions of the impact of new or transferred prescription incentives on pharmacy practice and patient care. RESULTS: 74 usable surveys were analyzed. Most pharmacists (74%) worked for employers who participated in prescription incentive promotions (e.g., $10 gift cards). Regarding quality of care, pharmacists perceived patients as being less likely to receive thorough drug interaction screenings (4.0 ± 1.4 [mean ± SD]) and reported medication-related problems "sometimes to very often" (3.0 ± 0.9) as a result of transferring prescriptions. Pharmacists also reported that patients commonly fill prescriptions regardless of medical necessity in order to receive incentives (4.1 ± 1.0). With respect to pharmacy practice, the majority believed that prescription incentives devalue the profession (4.3 ± 1.1) and should be eliminated (4.4 ± 1.0). Pharmacists were not inclined to believe that incentives were effective in attracting new patients and retaining their business (2.0 ± 1.0). CONCLUSION: Pharmacists believed that prescription incentives are ineffective tools for increasing patient base and may lead to lower quality of care for patients. Pharmacists view prescription incentives as devaluing the profession of pharmacy and exposing patients to medication-related problems.

Effect of social influences on pharmacists' intention to report adverse drug events.

OBJECTIVES: To identify the groups or individuals that influence pharmacists' decision making to report adverse drug events (ADEs), determine the differences in social influence or subjective norm between intenders and nonintenders, and determine the relationship between subjective norm toward reporting serious ADEs and practice and demographic characteristics. DESIGN: Nonexperimental cross-sectional study. SETTING: Texas during June and July 2009. PARTICIPANTS: 1,500 Texas pharmacists. INTERVENTION: As part of a larger survey, 3 and 18 items were used to assess pharmacists' intentions and subjective norm, respectively, to report serious ADEs to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Pharmacists' subjective norm toward reporting serious ADEs. RESULTS: The survey had a response rate of 26.4% (n = 377). Most pharmacists intended to report serious ADEs that they would encounter (15.87 ± 4.22 [mean ± SD], possible range 3-21, neutral = 12). The mean subjective norm scores were moderately high and positive (28.75 ± 9.38, 1-49, 16), indicating that the referents had a moderate influence on pharmacists regarding reporting serious ADEs to FDA. FDA had the greatest (34.82 ± 12.16) and drug manufacturers the lowest (21.55 ± 13.83) social influence. The most important salient referents (important others) in pharmacists' decisions to report serious ADEs were FDA, patients, pharmacy associations, pharmacy managers/bosses, and hospitals and hospital groups. Gender (female equals higher), pharmacists' years of experience (negative correlation), and knowledge of ADE reporting (positive correlation) were associated with subjective norm. CONCLUSION: Pharmacists had a moderately high subjective norm, suggesting that ADE reporting intentions is influenced by others and that the opinions of others are of great importance in pharmacists' intentions regarding ADE reporting. The main drivers of subjective norm were FDA, patients, pharmacy associations, and managers/bosses.