Genomic and Metabolomic Polymorphism among Experimentally Selected Paromomycin-Resistant Leishmania donovani Strains.

Understanding the mechanism(s) underpinning drug resistance could lead to novel treatments to reverse the increased tolerance of a pathogen. In this study, paromomycin (PMM) resistance (PMMr) was induced in three Nepalese clinical strains of Leishmania donovani with different inherent susceptibilities to antimony (Sb) drugs by stepwise exposure of promastigotes to PMM. Exposure to PMM resulted in the production of mixed populations of parasites, even though a single cloned population was used at the start of selection. PMM 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) values for PMMr parasites varied between 104 and 481 µM at the promastigote stage and 32 and 195 µM at the intracellular amastigote stage. PMM resistance was associated with increased resistance to nitric oxide at the amastigote stage but not the promastigote stage (P < 0.05). This effect was most marked in the Sb-resistant (Sbr) PMMr clone, in which PMM resistance was associated with a significant upregulation of glutathione compared to that in its wild type (P < 0.05), although there was no change in the regulation of trypanothione (detected in its oxidized form). Interestingly, PMMr strains showed an increase in either the keto acid derivative of isoleucine (Sb intermediate PMMr) or the 2-hydroxy acids derived from arginine and tyrosine (Sb susceptible PMMr and Sbr PMMr). These results are consistent with the recent finding that the upregulation of the branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase and d-lactate dehydrogenase is linked to PMMr In addition, we found that PMMr is associated with a significant increase in aneuploidy during PMM selection in all the strains, which could allow the rapid selection of genetic changes that confer a survival advantage.

In vitro selection of miltefosine resistance in promastigotes of Leishmania donovani from Nepal: genomic and metabolomic characterization.

In this study, we followed the genomic, lipidomic and metabolomic changes associated with the selection of miltefosine (MIL) resistance in two clinically derived Leishmania donovani strains with different inherent resistance to antimonial drugs (antimony sensitive strain Sb-S; and antimony resistant Sb-R). MIL-R was easily induced in both strains using the promastigote-stage, but a significant increase in MIL-R in the intracellular amastigote compared to the corresponding wild-type did not occur until promastigotes had adapted to 12.2 µM MIL. A variety of common and strain-specific genetic changes were discovered in MIL-adapted parasites, including deletions at the LdMT transporter gene, single-base mutations and changes in somy. The most obvious lipid changes in MIL-R promastigotes occurred to phosphatidylcholines and lysophosphatidylcholines and results indicate that the Kennedy pathway is involved in MIL resistance. The inherent Sb resistance of the parasite had an impact on the changes that occurred in MIL-R parasites, with more genetic changes occurring in Sb-R compared with Sb-S parasites. Initial interpretation of the changes identified in this study does not support synergies with Sb-R in the mechanisms of MIL resistance, though this requires an enhanced understanding of the parasite's biochemical pathways and how they are genetically regulated to be verified fully.

What happened at Vienna's Allgemeines Krankenhaus after Semmelweis's contract as Assistant in the First Maternity Division was terminated?

Ignác Fülöp Semmelweis is famous for dramatically reducing puerperal mortality while he was an Assistant in Vienna's largest hospital, the Allgemeines Krankenhaus; he did this, mainly, by requiring medical personnel to disinfect their hands by washing in a chlorine solution. But Semmelweis was soon removed from his post as assistant. The conventional view, which is suggested by Semmelweis's own account, is that his contemporaries were skeptical of his results, that he was marginalized and that once he was no longer directly responsible for caring for maternity patients, puerperal mortality returned to its former high levels. In fact, the situation appears to have been quite different. In this paper, we calculate and discuss the number of deaths at the Allgemeines maternity clinic after Semmelweis was removed from his position. As we will see, his successors maintained a relatively low mortality rate roughly consistent with the rate Semmelweis himself achieved. This suggests that the chlorine washings were probably still used conscientiously after he left and that the opposition he encountered had other sources than doubts about the effectiveness of the chlorine washings.

Discrete nuclear domains of poly(A) RNA and their relationship to the functional organization of the nucleus.

The functional organization of the nucleus was studied using a fluorescence microscopy approach which allowed integration of positional information for RNA, DNA, and proteins. In cells from sea urchin to human, nuclear poly(A) RNA was found concentrated primarily within several discrete "transcript domains" which often surrounded nucleoli. Concentrations of poly(A) RNA were coincident with snRNP antigen clusters, providing evidence for the localization of pre-mRNA splicing at these sites. The spatial relationship of transcript domains with respect to various classes of DNA was established, in that the poly(A) RNA-rich regions coincided with discrete regions of low DNA density and were non-randomly distributed with respect to specific DNA sequences. Centromeric DNA and late-replicating DNA did not overlap transcript domains, whereas a subset of early-replicating DNA may. Results indicate that transcript domains do not result directly from a simple clustering of chromatin corresponding to metaphase chromosomes bands. Finally, observations on the reassembly of these domains after mitosis suggest that the clustering of snRNP antigens may be dependent on the reappearance of pol II transcription. Implications of these findings for overall nuclear structure and function are considered, including a discussion of whether transcript domains may be sites of polymerase II transcription reflecting a clustering of active genes.

Dynamic changes in the higher-level chromatin organization of specific sequences revealed by in situ hybridization to nuclear halos.

A novel approach to study the higher level packaging of specific DNA sequences has been developed by coupling high-resolution fluorescence hybridization with biochemical fractionation to remove histones and distend DNA loops to form morphologically reproducible nuclear "halos." Results demonstrate consistent differences in the organization of specific sequences, and further suggest a relationship to functional activity. Pulse-incorporated bromodeoxyuridine representing nascent replicating DNA localized with the base of the chromatin loops in discrete clustered patterns characteristic of intact cells, whereas at increasing chase times, the replicated DNA was consistently found further out on the extended region of the halo. Fluorescence hybridization to unique loci for four transcriptionally inactive sequences produced long strings of signal extending out onto the DNA halo or "loop," whereas four transcriptionally active sequences remained tightly condensed as single spots within the residual nucleus. In contrast, in non-extracted cells, all sequences studied typically remained condensed as single spots of fluorescence signal. Interestingly, two transcriptionally active, tandemly repeated gene clusters exhibited strikingly different packaging by this assay. Analysis of specific genes in single cells during the cell cycle revealed changes in packaging between S-phase and non S-phase cells, and further suggested a dramatic difference in the structural associations in mitotic and interphase chromatin. These results are consistent with and suggestive of a loop domain organization of chromatin packaging involving both stable and transient structural associations, and provide precedent for an approach whereby different biochemical fractionation methods may be used to unravel various aspects of the complex higher-level organization of the genome.

A three-dimensional view of precursor messenger RNA metabolism within the mammalian nucleus.

A quantitative three-dimensional analysis of nuclear components involved in precursor messenger RNA metabolism was performed with a combination of fluorescence hybridization, immunofluorescence, and digital imaging microscopy. Polyadenylate [poly(A)] RNA-rich transcript domains were discrete, internal nuclear regions that formed a ventrally positioned horizontal array in monolayer cells. A dimmer, sometimes strand-like, poly(A) RNA signal was dispersed throughout the nucleoplasm. Spliceosome assembly factor SC-35 localized within the center of individual domains. These data support a nuclear model in which there is a specific topological arrangement of noncontiguous centers involved in precursor messenger RNA metabolism, from which RNA transport toward the nuclear envelope radiates.

Mutation of a mutL homolog in hereditary colon cancer.

Some cases of hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC) are due to alterations in a mutS-related mismatch repair gene. A search of a large database of expressed sequence tags derived from random complementary DNA clones revealed three additional human mismatch repair genes, all related to the bacterial mutL gene. One of these genes (hMLH1) resides on chromosome 3p21, within 1 centimorgan of markers previously linked to cancer susceptibility in HNPCC kindreds. Mutations of hMLH1 that would disrupt the gene product were identified in such kindreds, demonstrating that this gene is responsible for the disease. These results suggest that defects in any of several mismatch repair genes can cause HNPCC.

Editing of glutamate receptor B subunit ion channel RNAs by four alternatively spliced DRADA2 double-stranded RNA adenosine deaminases.

Double-stranded (ds) RNA-specific adenosine deaminase converts adenosine residues into inosines in dsRNA and edits transcripts of certain cellular and viral genes such as glutamate receptor (GluR) subunits and hepatitis delta antigen. The first member of this type of deaminase, DRADA1, has been recently cloned based on the amino acid sequence information derived from biochemically purified proteins. Our search for DRADA1-like genes through expressed sequence tag databases led to the cloning of the second member of this class of enzyme, DRADA2, which has a high degree of sequence homology to DRADA1 yet exhibits a distinctive RNA editing site selectivity. There are four differentially spliced isoforms of human DRADA2. These different isoforms of recombinant DRADA2 proteins, including one which is a human homolog of the recently reported rat RED1, were analyzed in vitro for their GluR B subunit (GluR-B) RNA editing site selectivity. As originally reported for rat RED1, the DRADA2a and -2b isoforms edit GluR-B RNA efficiently at the so-called Q/R site, whereas DRADA1 barely edits this site. In contrast, the R/G site of GluR-B RNA was edited efficiently by the DRADA2a and -2b isoforms as well as DRADA1. Isoforms DRADA2c and -2d, which have a distinctive truncated shorter C-terminal structure, displayed weak adenosine-to-inosine conversion activity but no editing activity tested at three known sites of GluR-B RNA. The possible role of these DRADA2c and -2d isoforms in the regulatory mechanism of RNA editing is discussed.

Coding region of NKX3.1, a prostate-specific homeobox gene on 8p21, is not mutated in human prostate cancers.

Loss of heterozygosity at chromosome 8p21-22 is common in human prostate cancer, suggesting the presence of one or more tumor suppressor genes at this locus. A homeobox gene that is expressed specifically in adult human prostate, NKX3.1, the expression of which is regulated by androgen, maps to chromosome 8p21. Fine structure in situ mapping showed that NKX3.1 is proximal to MSR32 (macrophage scavenger receptor type II) and LPL (human lipoprotein lipase) and very close to NEFL (human neurofilament light chain) on 8p21. Single-strand conformational polymorphism analysis of 48 radical prostatectomy cancer specimens and 3 metastases for the entire coding region of NKX3.1 showed no tumor-specific sequence alterations in 50 specimens and total absence of the gene in 1 specimen known to have a biallelic deletion of 8p21. NKX3.1 was found to have a polymorphism at nucleotide 154 in codon 52 that resulted in a CGC-->TGC sequence change and an Arg-->Cys amino acid alteration (R52C). This polymorphism was present in 20% of DNA samples. If NKX3.1 is a target of the 8p21 LOH, it is not via disruption of the coding region of the gene.

Nanocarriers Made from Non-Ionic Surfactants or Natural Polymers for Pulmonary Drug Delivery.

BACKGROUND: Treatment by the pulmonary route can be used for drugs that act locally in the lungs (e.g. lung cancer) or non-invasive administration of drugs that act systemically (e.g. diabetes). The potential of using drug delivery systems (DDS) formed from non-ionic surfactants or natural products for pulmonary drug delivery are reviewed. METHODS: The effectiveness of each DDS depends on it ability to not only entrap the relevant drug and alter its bio distribution, but also its ability to withstand the physical stresses during nebulization and for the nebuliser to produce aerosol particles with the size for deposition in the appropriate part of the lungs. Different methods must be used to prepare nanoparticles (NP) using non-ionic surfactants, or biocompatible polymers from natural proteins or sugars, and the aqueous solubility of the drug also influences the manufacture method. RESULTS: NP produced using non-ionic surfactants, proteins such as collagen, albumin or gluten, and polysaccharides such as chitosan, hyaluronate, cellulose, carrageenans, alginate or starch has successfully delivered different types of drugs given by the pulmonary route. Drug entrapment efficiency depends on the DDS constituents and the manufacture method used. Large scale manufacture of DDS from natural products is technically challenging but changing from batch manufacture to continuous manufacturing processes has addressed some of these issues, and inclusion of a spray drying step has been beneficial in some cases. CONCLUSION: DDS for lung delivery can be produced using natural products but identifying a cost effective manufacture method may be challenging and the impact of using different type of nebulisers on the physiochemical characteristics of the aerosolised formulation should be an essential part of formulation development. This would ensure that some of the development work e.g. stability studies do not have to be repeated as they will identify if a carrier to protect the DDS from the physical trauma caused by nebulisation.

GRS, a novel member of the Bcl-2 gene family, is highly expressed in multiple cancer cell lines and in normal leukocytes.

Our laboratory previously described the independent isolation of the fibroblast growth factor 4 (FGF-4) gene by NIH3T3 transformation assay using DNA from a patient with CML leukemia (Lucas et al., 1994). The FGF-4 gene was truncated by DNA rearrangement with a novel gene named GRS. In this manuscript we describe isolation of GRS cDNA and show by sequence comparison that GRS is a novel member of the Bcl-2 gene family. Northern analysis shows expression of the gene in normal human tissue to be largely restricted to the hematopoietic compartment. Analysis of the pattern of gene expression in cancer cell lines demonstrates GRS is expressed in hematopoietic malignancies and in melanoma. The chromosomal location of GRS has also been determined. The gene is positioned on chromosome 15 within bands q24-25.

Differential expression of the mouse alpha 1-acid glycoprotein genes (AGP-1 and AGP-2) during inflammation and aging.

In this study we investigated the expression of the Balb/c mouse alpha 1-acid glycoprotein genes. Mice, like humans, have two distinct alpha 1-acid glycoprotein mRNAs. As in humans and rats, mouse alpha 1-acid glycoprotein is a strong acute-phase reactant and its expression can be induced by acute-phase stimulatory agents such as bacterial lipopolysaccharides. Southern analysis and partial sequencing of different alpha 1-acid glycoprotein genomic clones indicated the existence of three distinct alpha 1-acid glycoprotein genes in the Balb/c genome. Using oligonucleotide hybridization, we showed that two of the three genes were expressed while the third gene was either not expressed or expressed at extremely low levels. The mRNA levels for the two expressed genes, alpha 1-acid glycoprotein-1 and alpha 1-acid glycoprotein-2, were both induced during the acute-phase response. However, alpha 1-acid glycoprotein-2 mRNA was present in at least 10-fold higher levels in both induced and uninduced mice. There were also differences in the developmental patterns of the two mRNAs in that the constitutive alpha 1-acid glycoprotein-1 mRNA levels increased 20-fold between 2 and 7 months, while alpha 1-acid glycoprotein-2 mRNA pools remained constant. During the acute-phase response in aged animals, there was an increase in the time required for both mRNAs to respond, and the maximum induced level of both mRNAs decreased. These studies set the stage for future experiments to determine the mechanisms by which the different alpha 1-acid glycoprotein genes are regulated during the acute-phase response and how aging affects these regulatory processes.

Spatial localization of pre-mRNA transcription and processing within the nucleus.

The organization of transcription, processing, and transport of pre-mRNA within the nucleus is a major unsolved problem in cell biology. Several recent studies have helped to define the localization of specific DNAs, RNAs, and proteins within the nucleus and have led to various models for higher level organization of pre-mRNA metabolism.

Mutation at the phenylalanine hydroxylase gene (PAH) and its use to document population genetic variation: the Quebec experience.

We describe variation at the PAH locus in the population of Quebec. We successfully analyzed 135 of 141 chromosomes from phenylketonuria (PKU) probands (95.7% of the sample), and eight additional chromosomes from a small number of probands with non-PKU hyperphenylalaninemia (HPA). The full set of chromosomes harboured 45 different PAH mutations: i) seven polymorphisms (IVS2nt19, IVS3nt-22, IVS6nt-55, Q232Q, V245V, L385L, Y414Y); ii) four mutations causing non-PKU HPA (T92I, E390G, R408Q, D415N); iii) 34 mutations causing PKU. Only six mutations (M1V, R261Q, F299C, S349P, R408W and IVS12nt1) occurred in the whole province at relative frequencies > 5%: most are rare and probably identical by descent. By studying associations of mutations with polymorphic haplotype alleles, we found examples of mutations on different haplotypes that were identical by state, but not by descent because they were recurrent mutations (E280K and R408W); and examples of mutations identical both by state and by descent because of intragenic recombination (S67P, G218V, V245A and IVS12nt1). Ten mutations were first described in Quebec and five are still unique there; three of these 'Quebec' mutations are reported here for the first time (c.125A-->T (K42I); [c.470G-->A; c.471A--C] (R157N); c.707nt-55 (IVS6nt-55). The PAH mutations stratify by geographic region and population, their distributions validating hypotheses about European range expansion to North America during three separate phases of immigration and demographic expansion in the Quebec region over the past four centuries. The PAH homozygosity value (j) is 0.06 for the total Quebec sample (0.5-0.08 by regions), and the corresponding homoallelic fraction of mutant PAH genotypes is 24%. These findings are a documentation of genetic diversity in the Quebec population.

Cloning and functional analysis of the human IRF-3 promoter.

We have isolated a genomic clone of the human IRF-3 gene containing 779 nucleotides of the 5' flanking region and the complete intron exon sequence. The gene has eight exons which span about 6 kb on chromosome 19q13.3. The IRF-3 promoter has neither a conserved TATA box nor a CCAAT box motif but is GC rich. Several putative DNA-binding elements were identified, including three SP-1 sites, a USF element, a HOX box, a CarG box, and an NF-1 site. Deletion analysis of the promoter region showed that the core basal promoter, consisting of 113 bp 5' of the first transcription start site, was sufficient for constitutive expression. This region contains only one of the SP-1 sites as well as the HOX element and NF-1 site, and although it is GC rich, it does not contain any of the other putative DNA-binding sites. In contrast, the mouse IRF-3 promoter, while displaying a high degree of homology with the human promoter, contains both TATA and CCAAT box motifs, suggesting that, at least at the level of transcription initiation, these genes may be differentially regulated.

Cloning, characterization, and mapping of human homolog of mouse T-cell death-associated gene.

To establish immunologic autotolerance, self-reactive immature thymocytes are eliminated by negative selection during T-cell development in the thymus. Self-reactive clones undergo apoptosis after stimulation via the T-cell receptor (TCR). The process of cell selection is determined by the dedication of the TCR for tolerogenic antigen/major histocompatibility complex. We have cloned a novel human gene that is highly homologous in the transmembrane and G protein-coupling domains to mouse T-cell death-associated gene 8 (TDAG8). The gene, human TDAG8 (hTDAG8), which belongs to the G protein-couple receptor superfamily, encodes a protein of 337 amino acids. An expressed sequence tag (EST) corresponding to hTDAG8 was identified from a human thyroid cDNA library and subsequently used to isolate a full-length genomic clone. Northern blot analysis revealed that the hTDAG8 gene is expressed predominantly in lymphoid tissues, including peripheral blood leukocytes, spleen, lymph nodes, and thymus. Stably transfected mammalian CHO cells were generated, and heterologous expression of hTDAG8 was confirmed by Northern blot analysis. Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) revealed that hTDAG8 maps to human chromosome 14q31-32.1, a region in which abnormalities associated with human T-cell lymphoma or leukemia are found. Taken together, these data implicate the hTDAG8 gene in T-cell-associated diseases in humans, but its actual physiological and pathological role in the human immune system needs further investigation.

The effect of aging on constitutive mRNA levels and lipopolysaccharide inducibility of acute phase genes.

Eukaryotic organisms possess natural defense processes associated with their response to injury, inflammation and pollutants. One of these, the acute phase (AP) host response, is characterized by a series of hepatic physiological reactions triggered by factors released as a result of bacterial infection, inflammation or tissue injury and is believed to be the mechanism by which cells and tissues are protected against further damage and injury. The capacity to respond to these physiological insults is known to be affected by aging. We propose that the AP response represents a series of intrinsic processes and interactions that may be affected by aging. Furthermore, we propose that this may be due to the progressive failure of the acute phase response. In this study we examine the relationship between aging and the expression of both positive and negative acute phase reactants, i.e., acute phase serum proteins whose levels are increased or decreased in response to systemic injury and infection. The mRNA levels of the positive acute phase reactants, alpha 1-acid glycoprotein (AGP), alpha 1-antitrypsin (AT), and the negative acute phase reactant, albumin were measured in both normal and inflammation-induced mice of ages 2, 7, 12, and 24 months. A significant decrease in the constitutive levels of AT and albumin mRNAs occurred as a function of increased age. Furthermore, aging decreased the ability of the AGP and albumin genes to respond to inflammation. Our studies indicate that aging may affect the transcription of these genes, processing of their mRNA or stability of the mRNA levels.

The distribution of free and non-ionic vesicular sodium stibogluconate in the dog.

The pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution of antimony after the administration of sodium stibogluconate in a free form or entrapped in vesicles prepared from non-ionic surfactant were studied in the dog. Animals were given either one or two intravenous bolus injection(s) equivalent to 45 mg Sb kg-1 as free drug or 0.625 or 0.685 mg Sb kg-1 as vesicular drug. Blood samples were taken at various times after dosing and antimony levels in various tissues were determined at 3 h, 48 h and 6 days after dosing. After free stibogluconate antimony clearance from the blood occurred in a rapid elimination phase with a blood half-life of 0.58 +/- 0.08 h. This rapid elimination phase did not occur after vesicular drug. Both drug preparations gave similar antimony levels in the spleen, liver and femur and humerus bone marrow at all time points assessed even though the vesicular dose was one-seventieth of the free drug dose. After the free drug there was marked urinary excretion of antimony and, as a result, increased kidney loading at the expense of other tissue. Vesicle-mediated drug delivery suppressed renal excretion and a much greater proportion of the antimony dose was recovered from tissue than was obtained after free drug. A hypothesis is presented to account for the differences in tissue antimony concentrations produced by the two formulations.

Visceral leishmaniasis in the BALB/c mouse: a comparison of the in vivo activity of five non-ionic surfactant vesicle preparations of sodium stibogluconate.

Five non-ionic surfactants (Surfactants V-IX) were screened for their ability to produce vesicles for the delivery of sodium stibogluconate. Mean vesicle diameter and antimony content were determined prior to in vivo assessment of antiparasitic activity in a mouse model of acute visceral leishmaniasis. V/D suspensions (i.e. stibogluconate loaded vesicles kept in the hydrating drug solution) were more effective against spleen, liver and bone marrow parasites than drug loaded vesicle suspensions that had unentrapped drug removed. A Surfactant IX V/D suspension was the most active antileishmanial preparation causing 74 +/- 10%, 99 +/- 1% and 38 +/- 8% suppression of liver, spleen and bone marrow parasite burdens respectively. Contrary to previous findings, a reduction in splenic and bone marrow parasite burdens was achieved using large vesicles (mean diameter > 800nm). The significance of these results is discussed.