Acute Cardiac Injury in Coronavirus Disease 2019 and Other Viral Infections-A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

OBJECTIVES: Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus-2 binds and inhibits angiotensin-converting enzyme-2. The frequency of acute cardiac injury in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 is unknown. The objective was to compare the rates of cardiac injury by angiotensin-converting enzyme-2-binding viruses from viruses that do not bind to angiotensin-converting enzyme-2. DATA SOURCES: We performed a systematic review of coronavirus disease 2019 literature on PubMed and EMBASE. STUDY SELECTION: We included studies with ten or more hospitalized adults with confirmed coronavirus disease 2019 or other viral pathogens that described the occurrence of acute cardiac injury. This was defined by the original publication authors or by: 1) myocardial ischemia, 2) new cardiac arrhythmia on echocardiogram, or 3) new or worsening heart failure on echocardiogram. DATA EXTRACTION: We compared the rates of cardiac injury among patients with respiratory infections with viruses that down-regulate angiotensin-converting enzyme-2, including H1N1, H5N1, H7N9, and severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus-1, to those with respiratory infections from other influenza viruses that do not bind angiotensin-converting enzyme-2, including Influenza H3N2 and influenza B. DATA SYNTHESIS: Of 57 studies including 34,072 patients, acute cardiac injury occurred in 50% (95% CI, 44-57%) of critically ill patients with coronavirus disease 2019. The overall risk of acute cardiac injury was 21% (95% CI, 18-26%) among hospitalized patients with coronavirus disease 2019. In comparison, 37% (95% CI, 26-49%) of critically ill patients with other respiratory viruses that bind angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (p = 0.061) and 12% (95% CI, 7-22%) of critically ill patients with other respiratory viruses that do not bind angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (p < 0.001) experienced a cardiac injury. CONCLUSIONS: Acute cardiac injury may be associated with whether the virus binds angiotensin-converting enzyme-2. Acute cardiac injury occurs in half of critically ill coronavirus disease 2019 patients, but only 12% of patients infected by viruses that do not bind to angiotensin-converting enzyme-2.

Benthic Crustacean Digestion Can Modulate the Environmental Fate of Microplastics in the Deep Sea.

Microplastics (MPs) are ubiquitous contaminants of the marine environment, and the deep seafloor is their ultimate sink compartment. Manipulative and field experiments provided evidence of the ingestion of MPs by deep-sea fauna, but knowledge of MPs' fate once ingested still remains scant. We provide evidence of MP partial retention and fragmentation mediated by digestion activity of a Norwegian langoustine, a good bioindicator for MP contamination of the deep sea. We report here that MPs in the intestines were more abundant and significantly smaller (up to 1 order of magnitude in surface) than those in the stomachs. Our results show that the stomach can act as a size-bottleneck for ingested MPs, enhancing the retention of larger particles within the stomach and promoting fragmentation into smaller plastic debris, which is then released in the intestine. Our results provide evidence that the langoustine is responsible for the fragmentation of MPs already accumulated in sediments through its scavenging activity and digestion. These findings highlight the existence of a new peculiar kind of "secondary" MPs, introduced in the environment by biological activities, which could represent a significant pathway of plastic degradation in a secluded and stable environment such as the deep sea.

Living naked: first case of lack of skin-related structures in an elasmobranch, the blackmouth catshark (Galeus melastomus).

As far as is known, in this paper the first case of lacking of skin-related structures (epidermis, stratum laxum, dermal denticles and teeth) in a free-swimming elasmobranch, the blackmouth catshark, Galeus melastomus, is reported. The individual was caught by trawl in Sardinian waters (central-western Mediterranean) in July 2019 at a depth of 500 m. Although this kind of morphological abnormality is potentially fatal, the observations suggested that the specimen was in good health and well developed.

Mediterranean Bioconstructions Along the Italian Coast.

Marine bioconstructions are biodiversity-rich, three-dimensional biogenic structures, regulating key ecological functions of benthic ecosystems worldwide. Tropical coral reefs are outstanding for their beauty, diversity and complexity, but analogous types of bioconstructions are also present in temperate seas. The main bioconstructions in the Mediterranean Sea are represented by coralligenous formations, vermetid reefs, deep-sea cold-water corals, Lithophyllum byssoides trottoirs, coral banks formed by the shallow-water corals Cladocora caespitosa or Astroides calycularis, and sabellariid or serpulid worm reefs. Bioconstructions change the morphological and chemicophysical features of primary substrates and create new habitats for a large variety of organisms, playing pivotal roles in ecosystem functioning. In spite of their importance, Mediterranean bioconstructions have not received the same attention that tropical coral reefs have, and the knowledge of their biology, ecology and distribution is still fragmentary. All existing data about the spatial distribution of Italian bioconstructions have been collected, together with information about their growth patterns, dynamics and connectivity. The degradation of these habitats as a consequence of anthropogenic pressures (pollution, organic enrichment, fishery, coastal development, direct physical disturbance), climate change and the spread of invasive species was also investigated. The study of bioconstructions requires a holistic approach leading to a better understanding of their ecology and the application of more insightful management and conservation measures at basin scale, within ecologically coherent units based on connectivity: the cells of ecosystem functioning.

Phthalates and perfluorinated alkylated substances in Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) specimens from Mediterranean Sea (Sardinia, Italy): Levels and risks for human consumption.

Atlantic blue fin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) is a species of great importance for Mediterranean Sea area, from both ecological and commercial points of view. The scientific literature reports few data on the contamination of this fish by emerging organic compounds such as perfluorinated alkylated substances(PFASs) and phthalates, being the latter never been studied in tuna. This study therefore investigated the presence of the PFASs perfluorooctane sulphonate (PFOS) and perfluoroctanoic acid (PFOA) and the phthalate di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), also monitored by its metabolite mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate(MEHP), to assess both the state of contamination of Atlantic bluefin tuna specimen and the risk due to the toxicity of these compounds for human consumption. While PFOA was never found, detectable levels of PFOS (0.4-1.88 ng/g), DEHP (9-14.62 ng/g) and MEHP (1.5-6.30 ng/g) were found. The results were elaborated relating the accumulation to the size and age of the individuals and showed a correlation between the levels of different pollutants investigated.

Marine macro-litter mass outweighs biomass in trawl catches along abyssal seafloors of Sardinia channel (Italy).

This study provides new insights onto spatial and temporal trends of seafloor macro-litter in the abyssal seafloor of Sardinian channel, in central western Mediterranean (Italy). Trawl surveys were conducted at depths between 884 and 1528 m, thus focusing on one of the least investigated marine environments. None of the considered sites was litter free, with plastics being numerically dominant (57% of items), followed by metal (11%) and glass (16%). Recorded densities and weight ranged between 49.9 and 499 items km-2 and 1.4 and 1052 kg km-2. In the most contaminated sites, the weight of the litter collected in nets represented up to nine times the biomass of benthic megafauna, and, overall, in 60% of hauls macro-litter mass outweighed the biomass collected. Moreover, we report that megafauna was observed to be more abundant in sites where macro-litter presence was more severe. More studies are needed to elucidate the nature of this correlation, with biota being more abundant in hotspots of accumulation of seafloor macro-litter.

What, where, and when: Spatial-temporal distribution of macro-litter on the seafloor of the western and central Mediterranean sea.

The progressive increase of marine macro-litter on the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea is an urgent problem that needs accurate information and guidance to identify those areas most at risk of accumulation. In the absence of dedicated monitoring programs, an important source of opportunistic data is fishery-independent monitoring campaigns of demersal resources. These data have long been used but not yet extensively. In this paper, MEDiterranean International Trawl Survey (MEDITS) data was supplemented with 18 layers of information related to major environmental (e.g. depth, sea water and wind velocity, sea waves) and anthropogenic (e.g. river inputs, shipping lanes, urban areas and ports, fishing effort) forcings that influence seafloor macro-litter distribution. The Random Forest (RF), a machine learning approach, was applied to: i) model the distribution of several litter categories at a high spatial resolution (i.e. 1 km2); ii) identify major accumulation hot spots and their temporal trends. Results indicate that RF is a very effective approach to model the distribution of marine macro-litter and provides a consistent picture of the heterogeneous distribution of different macro-litter categories. The most critical situation in the study area was observed in the north-eastern part of the western basin. In addition, the combined analysis of weight and density data identified a tendency for lighter items to accumulate in areas (such as the northern part of the Tyrrhenian Sea) with more stagnant currents. This approach, based on georeferenced information widely available in public databases, seems a natural candidate to be applied in other basins as a support and complement tool to field monitoring activities and strategies for protection and remediation of the most impacted areas.

Ontogenetic Shifts in Body Morphology of Demersal Sharks' Species (Order: Squaliformes) Inhabiting the Western-Central Mediterranean Sea, with Implications for Their Bio-Ecological Role.

Several elasmobranch species undergo shifts in body proportions during their ontogenetic growth. Such morphological changes could reflect variation in diet, locomotion, or, more broadly, in the species' interactions with their environment. However, to date, only a few studies have been conducted on this topic, and most of them focused on particular body regions. In the present study, the ontogenetic growth of five different demersal shark species was investigated by using both traditional linear morphometry of the entire body and shape analysis of the caudal fin. A total of 449 sharks were analysed: 95 little gulper sharks, 80 longnose spurdogs, 103 kitefin sharks, 124 velvet belly lanternsharks, and 47 angular roughsharks. From each specimen, 36 linear morphometric measurements were taken. While a first canonical analysis of principal coordinates ruled out the possibility of different growth patterns between males and females, the same analysis statistically discriminated between small and large individuals in every species based on their morphology. A Similarity Percentage analysis revealed that the most important measurements in distinguishing these two groups were those related to body lengths, indicating that large individuals are more elongated than small individuals. The shape analysis of caudal fins revealed allometric growth during ontogenetic development, with adult individuals having a wider fin (discriminant analysis, p < 0.05). These findings could be related to changes in predatory skills, supporting the hypothesis of a shift in the ecological role that these sharks play in their environment, thus providing new essential information for their conservation.

Comparative microplastic load in two decapod crustaceans Palinurus elephas (Fabricius, 1787) and Nephrops norvegicus (Linnaeus, 1758).

The present work compares microplastics (MPs) contamination in two charismatic crustaceans: European spiny lobster Palinurus elephas and langoustine Nephrops norvegicus. Samples (P. elephas n = 14; N. norvegicus n = 15) were collected between 76 and 592 m depth, from four sites in west Sardinia, Italy. An extraction protocol was applied on stomachs and intestines, separately, and over 500 particles were further characterized through µFT-IR. We document 100 % occurrence in specimens from both species, with P. elephas being significantly more contaminated (9.1 ± 1.75 vs. 3.2 ± 0.45 MPs individual-1), ingesting larger MPs with different polymeric composition. The scavenging-based feeding strategy of both species could explain such exposure to MPs, mostly derived by single-use plastic. The overall results highlight that both species are clearly affected by plastic pollution, being valuable bioindicators and charismatic species that could thus represent excellent flagship species for raising awareness toward the global issue of plastic in the marine environment.

Environmental Status and Geomorphological Characterisation of Seven Black Coral Forests on the Sardinian Continental Shelf (NW Mediterranean Sea).

Marine animal forests are key mesophotic ecosystems that are under threat from increasing natural and human pressures. Despite the fact that various international agreements strive to preserve these fragile ecosystems, the environmental status of the majority of these animal-structured environments is unknown. Assessing their environmental status is the first step needed to monitor these essential habitats' health over time and include them within conservation and protection frameworks, such as the Marine Strategy Framework Directive. Based on Multibeam data and ROV footage, we characterized the geomorphological setting and evaluated the environmental status of seven black coral forests in the centre of the Western Mediterranean Sea, using the Mesophotic Assemblages Conservation Status (MACS) Index. The presence of two antipatharians, Antipathella subpinnata and Leiopathes glaberrima, characterized the seven investigated sites, dwelling on rocky substrate characterized by different environmental drivers (i.e., depth, slope of the substrate, terrain ruggedness, topographic positioning index, and aspect). From the combined evaluation of the associated benthic community status and the anthropogenic impacts affecting it, a "high" and "good" environmental status was assessed for five out of the seven studied black forests, with only two forests classified as having a "moderate" and "poor" status, respectively. Overall, our study showed a site-specific variability of mesophotic black coral forest status, explained by different biological community structures and environmental conditions mainly associated with morphological and anthropogenic factors.

Rivers of waste: Anthropogenic litter in intermittent Sardinian rivers, Italy (Central Mediterranean).

While the increasing accumulation of anthropogenic litter in the marine environment has received considerable attention over the last decade, litter occurrence and distribution in rivers, the main source of marine litter, have been comparatively less investigated. Moreover, little information is available about the amount and typology of Riverine Anthropogenic Macro-litter (RAM) entering marine environments from intermittent rivers in low populated areas of the Mediterranean basin. To provide insights on this issue, we investigated density and composition of RAM accumulated over a total of 133 riverbanks, belonging to 37 river basins in the Sardinia Island (Mediterranean Sea). We report here that plastics, especially single-use items, represent the most frequent and abundant RAM category in all investigated basins. Statistical modelling revealed that occurrence of lightweight RAM (especially plastic) is mostly explained by levels of urban (12.3% of the relative contribution) and agricultural (12%) land use of the territory, whereas the proximity of bridges to the sampling point (21%) and the local population density (19.8%) are best predictors of heavy weighted RAM items (i.e., large metal items, appliances) occurrence. Our results confirm that plastics represent an important component of RAM and pinpoint that, beside plastic reduction policies and better waste management, actions aimed at abating and monitoring litter contamination should be localized on the proximity of bridges, whatever the local population density. Finally, to fill existing knowledge gaps in understanding the severity of litter discharge and accumulation in the Mediterranean Sea, land-to-sea systematic monitoring campaigns at appropriate spatial and temporal scales should be put in place.

Deep-Dwelling Populations of Mediterranean Corallium rubrum and Eunicella cavolini: Distribution, Demography, and Co-Occurrence.

Corallium rubrum and Eunicella cavolini are two octocorals, reported as co-occurring species in the deep rocky habitats of the Mediterranean Sea with a high hydrodynamic and moderate eutrophication. Their spatial distribution and demography in the deep sea are mainly affected by temperature and direct and indirect anthropogenic activities; however, knowledge of the factors that potentially influence their co-existence is scarce. This paper provides novel data on the distribution and demography of these two species, at depths between 50 and 290 m in the Western Mediterranean Sea, providing insights on their co-occurrence. Both species exhibited the highest population density at deeper sites (>150 m), showing an inverse size-density relation. Density values ranged from 0.03 colonies m-2 to 32 and 80 col. m-2 for yellow gorgonian and red coral, respectively. The two species co-occurred in 13% of the total frames examined, mostly dwelling between 120 and 160 m depth. Distance-based linear modeling (DistLM) emphasized that when co-occurring the variability of the two species' densities were significantly driven by the density-rather than the morphology (i.e., height)-of the other species. We stress the need for further studies to elucidate the possible mutual effects of suspension feeders and to test the role of different environmental factors potentially influencing inter-specific relationships.

Digital mHealth and Virtual Care Use During COVID-19 in 4 Countries: Rapid Landscape Review.

BACKGROUND: As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, providing health care while maintaining social distancing has resulted in the need to provide care remotely, support quarantined or isolated individuals, monitor infected individuals and their close contacts, as well as disseminate accurate information regarding COVID-19 to the public. This has led to an unprecedented rapid expansion of digital tools to provide digitized virtual care globally, especially mobile phone-facilitated health interventions, called mHealth. To help keep abreast of different mHealth and virtual care technologies being used internationally to facilitate patient care and public health during the COVID-19 pandemic, we carried out a rapid investigation of solutions being deployed and considered in 4 countries. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this paper was to describe mHealth and the digital and contact tracing technologies being used in the health care management of the COVID-19 pandemic among 2 high-income and 2 low-middle income countries. METHODS: We compared virtual care interventions used for COVID-19 management among 2 high-income countries (the United Kingdom and Canada) and 2 low-middle income (Kenya and Rwanda) countries. We focused on interventions used to facilitate patient care and public health. Information regarding specific virtual care technologies was procured from a variety of resources including gray literature, government and health organization websites, and coauthors' personal experiences as implementers of COVID-19 virtual care strategies. Search engine queries were performed to find health information that would be easily accessible to the general public, with keywords including "COVID-19," "contact-tracing," "tool-kit," "telehealth," and "virtual care," in conjunction with corresponding national health authorities. RESULTS: We identified a variety of technologies in Canada, the United Kingdom, Rwanda, and Kenya being used for patient care and public health. These countries are using both video and text message-based platforms to facilitate communication with health care providers (eg, WelTel and Zoom). Nationally developed contact tracing apps are provided free to the public, with most of them using Bluetooth-based technology. We identified that often multiple complimentary technologies are being utilized for different aspects of patient care and public health with the common purpose to disseminate information safely. There was a negligible difference among the types of technologies used in both high-income and low-middle income countries, although the latter implemented virtual care interventions earlier during the pandemic's first wave, which may account for their effective response. CONCLUSIONS: Virtual care and mHealth technologies have evolved rapidly as a tool for health care support for both patient care and public health. It is evident that, on an international level, a variety of mHealth and virtual care interventions, often in combination, are required to be able to address patient care and public health concerns during the COVID-19 pandemic, independent of a country's economic standing.

Investigating the Ovarian Microstructure in the Genera Helicolenus and Scorpaena (Teleostei, Sub-Order Scorpaenoidei) with Implications for Ovarian Dynamics and Spawning.

The sub-order Scorpenoidei appears to be particularly interesting due to the presence of intermediate stages between oviparity and viviparity in several species. The present study aims to describe the ovarian morphology, using a histological and histochemical approach, in four ovuliparous species belonging to Scorpaena genus compared with a zygoparous species, H. dactylopterus, focusing also on the assessment of the ovarian dynamics in the populations of such species in Sardinia waters (central-western Mediterranean). Ovarian sections of all species were examined using light microscopy. All species showed a specialized ovary, cystovarian type II-3, strictly related to the production of gelatinous matrices surrounding the eggs. Some microscopic peculiarities in the oogenesis process were found: thin zona pellucida, small and low cortical alveoli, and a specialized ovarian wall during the spawning period. All species analyzed were batch-spawners with an asynchronous ovarian organization. A continuous recruitment of oocytes and the occurrence of de novo vitellogenesis was also observed. During the spawning period, low atresia intensity was detected, while a marked increase in this intensity found in the ovaries at the end of spawning season. Our observations may support an indeterminate fecundity type for these species.

The Use of Reproductive Indicators for Conservation Purposes: The Case Study of Palinurus elephas in Two Fully Protected Areas and Their Surrounding Zones (Central-Western Mediterranean).

In 1990s, the European spiny lobster Palinurus elephas, one of the most commercially important species in the Mediterranean, exhibited a population decline. For this reason, fully protected areas (FPAs) appeared effective in re-establishing natural populations and supporting fishery-management objectives. Here, the reproductive parameters of P. elephas populations in two different FPAs (Su Pallosu and Buggerru, central-western Mediterranean), where a restocking programme was carried out, and in their surrounding commercial zones, were investigated from quantitative and qualitative perspectives. The comparison of fecundity between females collected inside and outside FPAs did not show statistical differences as well as the vitellogenin concentration, which did not vary among eggs of different size classes of females caught inside and outside the FPAs, indicating the same reproductive potential. The study demonstrated a benefit of overexploited populations in terms of enhancement of egg production overtime (15 years for Su Pallosu and 6 years for Buggerru) with a mean egg production 4.25-5.5 times higher at the end of the study than that observed at the beginning of the study. The main driver of eggs production appeared to be size, with larger lobsters more present inside the FPAs than outside. Given these results, the dominant contribution of the two studied FPAs to the regional lobster reproduction is remarkable.

Creating a provincial post COVID-19 interdisciplinary clinical care network as a learning health system during the pandemic: Integrating clinical care and research.

Introduction: Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19) affects multiple organ systems in the acute phase and also has long-term sequelae. Research on the long-term impacts of COVID-19 is limited. The Post COVID-19 Interdisciplinary Clinical Care Network (PC-ICCN), conceived in July 2020, is a provincially funded resource that is modelled as a Learning Health System (LHS), focused on those people with persistent symptoms post COVID-19 infection. Methods: The PC-ICCN emerged through collaboration among over 60 clinical specialists, researchers, patients, and health administrators. At the core of the network are the post COVID-19 Recovery Clinics (PCRCs), which provide direct patient care that includes standardized testing and education at regular follow-up intervals for a minimum of 12 months post enrolment. The PC-ICCN patient registry captures data on all COVID-19 patients with confirmed infection, by laboratory testing or epi-linkage, who have been referred to one of five post COVID-19 Recovery Clinics at the time of referral, with data stored in a fully encrypted Oracle-based provincial database. The PC-ICCN has centralized administrative and operational oversight, multi-stakeholder governance, purpose built data collection supported through clinical operations geographically dispersed across the province, and research operations including data analytics. Results: To date, 5364 patients have been referred, with an increasing number and capacity of these clinics, and 2354 people have had at least one clinic visit. Since inception, the PC-ICCN has received over 30 research proposal requests. This is aligned with the goal of creating infrastructure to support a wide variety of research to improve care and outcomes for patients experiencing long-term symptoms following COVID-19 infection. Conclusions: The PC-ICCN is a first-in-kind initiative in British Columbia to enhance knowledge and understanding of the sequelae of COVID-19 infection over time. This provincial initiative serves as a model for other national and international endeavors to enable care as research and research as care.

Movement patterns analysis as a tool in Fully Protected Areas design: Influence of relocations on travelled distances of Palinurus elephas (Fabr. 1787) in Sardinian FPAs (central-western Mediterranean).

Effectiveness of restocking programs in Marine Fully Protected Areas' (FPAs) can be highly affected by the movement behavior of the species to protect. We analyzed the data of 744 Palinurus elephas specimens tagged, relocated inside 12 FPAs, established in the seas surrounding Sardinia (central-western Mediterranean), and then recaptured. The overall aims were to characterize the individuals' movements after the relocation and to discuss strengths and weaknesses of the current FPAs' design. Almost 80% of tagged individuals travelled progressively increasing distances, as a function of the release distance, up to a maximum value of 11,500 m. Then, for larger release distances, individuals' mobility appeared reduced and more chaotic. A similar trend was found analyzing the distances travelled with respect to the FPAs with the highest number of recaptured individuals and to the size. These results allow to establish a threshold limit of the release distance, to take into account when designing FPAs, as a useful tool to keep a portion of the individuals into FPAs' borders, in order to both preserve the species and guarantee a spillover of individuals in the commercial areas.

Scattered accumulation hotspots of macro-litter on the seafloor: Insights for mitigation actions.

Marine litter is an ever-increasing problem that demands immediate reduction plans and mitigation actions that should act synergically to efficiently meet ambitious goals. Since the seafloor has been recognized as the major sink for marine debris, the study of litter accumulation dynamics represent a fundamental tool to evaluate possible removal actions. We analysed a 7 years (2013-2019) standardized data series collected along Sardinian fishing grounds through MEDiterranean International Trawl Survey, for which estimates of density and weight of seafloor macro-litter were calculated for over 707 hauls. Results show the absence of any temporal trend in seafloor macro-litter density and weight, but rather indicate a spatial and bathymetric segregation of different litter categories. Our data showed how different sources and physical features of macro-litter items (i.e., plastic and fishing gear, rubber, glass, metals, and cloth) led to spatially segregated accumulation hotspots. We also point out here how the identification of seafloor macro-litter hotspots using aggregated data that include plastic items could obscure the identification of other segregated but yet relevant hotspots of other macro-litter categories accumulated in the marine environment. These hotspots often occurred at shallower depths and closer to coastlines, thus representing potential spots where eventual future litter removal action could be prioritized.

A Taxonomic Survey of Female Oviducal Glands in Chondrichthyes: A Comparative Overview of Microanatomy in the Two Reproductive Modes.

Oviducal glands (OGs) are distinct expanded regions of the anterior portion of the oviduct, commonly found in chondrichthyans, which play a key role in the production of the egg in-vestments and in the female sperm storage (FSS). The FSS phenomenon has implications for understanding the reproductive ecology and management of exploited populations, but little information is available on its taxonomic extent. For the first time, mature OGs from three lecithotrophic oviparous and four yolk-sac viviparous species, all considered at risk from the fishing impacts in the central western Mediterranean Sea, were examined using light microscopy. The OG microanatomy, whose morphology is generally conserved in all species, shows differences within the two reproductive modalities. Oviparous species show a more developed baffle zone in respect to viviparous ones because of the production of different egg envelopes produced. Among oviparous species, Raja polystigma and Chimaera monstrosa show presence of sperm, but not sperm storage as observed, instead, in Galeus melastomus and in all the viviparous sharks, which preserve sperm inside of specialized structures in the terminal zone.

Colonization of plastic debris by the long-lived precious red coral Corallium rubrum: New insights on the "plastic benefits" paradox.

Seafloor macrolitter is ubiquitous in world's oceans; still, huge knowledge gaps exist on its interactions with benthic biota. We report here the colonization of plastic substrates by the Mediterranean red coral Corallium rubrum (L. 1758), occurring both in controlled conditions and in the wild at ca. 85 m depth in the Western Mediterranean Sea. Juveniles settled on seafloor macro-litter, with either arborescent or encrusting morphology, ranging from 0.6 to 3.5 mm in basal diameter and 0.2-7.1 years of age, also including a fraction (20%) of potentially sexually mature individuals. In controlled conditions, larvae settled and survived on plastic substrates for >60 days. Our insights show that marine plastic debris can provide favourable substrate for C. rubrum settlement either in controlled conditions or in the wild, suggesting their possible use in restoration activities. However, we pinpoint here that this potential benefit could result in adverse effects on population dynamics.