Spotting Trends in Organocatalyzed and Other Organomediated (De)polymerizations and Polymer Functionalizations.

Organocatalysis has evolved into an effective complement to metal- or enzyme-based catalysis in polymerization, polymer functionalization, and depolymerization. The ease of removal and greater sustainability of organocatalysts relative to transition-metal-based ones has spurred development in specialty applications, e.g., medical devices, drug delivery, optoelectronics. Despite this, the use of organocatalysis and other organomediated reactions in polymer chemistry is still rapidly developing, and we envisage their rapidly growing application in nascent areas such as controlled radical polymerization, additive manufacturing, and chemical recycling in the coming years. In this Review, we describe ten trending areas where we anticipate paradigm shifts resulting from novel organocatalysts and other transition-metal-free conditions. We highlight opportunities and challenges and detail how new discoveries could lead to previously inaccessible functional materials and a potentially circular plastics economy.

Intramolecular charge transfer and solvation dynamics of push-pull dyes with different π-conjugated linkers.

The solvation-dependent excited state dynamics of two push-pull fluorophores with donor-π-acceptor (D-π-A) structures were investigated using steady-state and ultrafast transient absorption (TA) spectroscopy, backed by theoretical calculations. Identical D and A groups were present in both dyes, which differed only in the structure of their central π-conjugated linkers. Dye 1 features a p-phenylenediethynyl linker, while dye 2 contains a 2,5-diethynylthiophene linker. From the steady-state spectra, no appreciable shifts in absorption bands were observed, whereas large red-shifts in emission were seen with increasing solvent polarity, which indicated that the excited states were more polar than the ground state. Theoretical calculations support charge transfer from the triphenylamine (TPA) donor to the pentafluorosulfanyl (SF5) acceptor viaπ-conjugated linkers to form an intramolecular charge transfer (ICT) state. TA spectra revealed that a solvation-stabilized conformationally relaxed intramolecular charge transfer (ICT') state was formed in polar solvents, but only an ICT state was observed in nonpolar solvent. The SE band was quenched within 1 ps in high-polarity solvent, which corresponds to the low fluorescence quantum yield. It can be concluded that the dye with the p-phenylenediethynyl π-linker (i.e., dye 1) exhibits a larger degree of ICT than the thiophene analogue (i.e., dye 2). These findings demonstrate how solvation can fine-tune the photophysical properties of push-pull dyes, and this study highlights the importance of π-conjugated linkers in the excited state ICT process.

Pulling with the Pentafluorosulfanyl Acceptor in Push-Pull Dyes.

A new class of push-pull fluorophores featuring the pentafluorosulfanyl (SF5) group as a potent acceptor has been synthesized. Known for its excellent chemical and thermal stability, the unique SF5 functionality is also strongly electron-withdrawing but at the same time highly lipophilic. We report six new fluorescent dyes, which were characterized by UV-vis/fluorescence spectroscopy, single-crystal X-ray diffraction, and cyclic voltammetry. Notable dye properties include large Stokes shifts (>100 nm), pronounced solvatofluorochromic effects arising from intramolecular charge transfer, moderate fluorescence quantum yields in both solutions and thin films, and extensive supramolecular C-H···F interactions in their crystalline states. Reversible mechanofluorochromism was also observed in dye 5, where grinding and fuming of a solid sample gave blue- and red-shifted emissions, respectively. Postfunctionalization of dye 3 to afford a pair of strong visible-light absorbers was also demonstrated.

Broad-spectrum antimicrobial polycarbonate hydrogels with fast degradability.

In this study, a new family of broad-spectrum antimicrobial polycarbonate hydrogels has been successfully synthesized and characterized. Tertiary amine-containing eight-membered monofunctional and difunctional cyclic carbonates were synthesized, and chemically cross-linked polycarbonate hydrogels were obtained by copolymerizing these monomers with a poly(ethylene glycol)-based bifunctional initiator via organocatalyzed ring-opening polymerization using 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene catalyst. The gels were quaternized using methyl iodide to confer antimicrobial properties. Stable hydrogels were obtained only when the bifunctional monomer concentration was equal to or higher than 12 mol %. In vitro antimicrobial studies revealed that all quaternized hydrogels exhibited broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus (Gram-positive), Escherichia coli (Gram-negative), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Gram-negative), and Candida albicans (fungus), while the antimicrobial activity of the nonquaternized hydrogels was negligible. Moreover, the gels showed fast degradation at room temperature (4-6 days), which makes them ideal candidates for wound healing and implantable biomaterials.

Thermoresponsive Random Poly(ether urethanes) with Tailorable LCSTs for Anticancer Drug Delivery.

A new class of thermoresponsive random polyurethanes is successfully synthesized and characterized. Poly(ethylene glycol) diol (Mn = 1500 Da) and 2,2-dimethylolpropionic acid are reacted with isophorone diisocyanate in the presence of methane sulfonic acid catalyst. It is found that these polyurethanes are thermoresponsive in aqueous media and manifest a lower critical solution temperature (LCST) that can be easily tuned from 30 °C to 70 °C by increasing the poly(ethylene glycol) content. Their sharp LCST transitions make these random polyurethanes ideal candidates for stimuli-responsive drug delivery applications. To that end, the ability of these systems to efficiently sequester doxorubicin (up to 36 wt%) by means of a sonication/dialysis method is successfully demonstrated. Additionally, it is also demonstrated that accelerated doxorubicin release kinetics from the nanoparticles can be attained above the LCST.

Overcoming multidrug resistance in microbials using nanostructures self-assembled from cationic bent-core oligomers.

Novel cationic molecules based on rigid terephthalamide-bisurea cores flanked by imidazolium moieties are described. In aqueous media, these compounds self-assemble into supramolecular nanostructures with distinct morphologies. The compound with optimal hydrophilic/hydrophobic balance displays potent antimicrobial activity and high selectivity towards clinically-isolated MRSA without inducing drug-resistance. These self-assembled cationic antimicrobial nanostructures show promise for the prevention and treatment of multidrug-resistant infections.

Organic acid-catalyzed polyurethane formation via a dual-activated mechanism: unexpected preference of N-activation over O-activation of isocyanates.

A systematic study of acid organocatalysts for the polyaddition of poly(ethylene glycol) to hexamethylene diisocyanate in solution has been performed. Among organic acids evaluated, sulfonic acids were found the most effective for urethane formations even when compared with conventional tin-based catalysts (dibutyltin dilaurate) or 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene. In comparison, phosphonic and carboxylic acids showed considerably lower catalytic activities. Furthermore, sulfonic acids gave polyurethanes with higher molecular weights than was observed using traditional catalyst systems. Molecular modeling was conducted to provide mechanistic insight and supported a dual activation mechanism, whereby ternary adducts form in the presence of acid and engender both electrophilic isocyanate activation and nucleophilic alcohol activation through hydrogen bonding. Such a mechanism suggests catalytic activity is a function of not only acid strength but also inherent conjugate base electron density.

Antifouling polymers for nanomedicine and surfaces: recent advances.

Antifouling polymers are materials that can resist nonspecific interactions with cells, proteins, and other biomolecules. Typically, they are hydrophilic polymers with polar or charged moieties that are capable of strong nonbonding interactions with water molecules. This propensity to bind water generates a surface hydration layer that reduces nonspecific interactions with other molecules and is paramount to the antifouling behavior. This property is especially useful for nanoscale applications such as nanomedicine and surface modifications at the molecular level. In nanomedicine, antifouling polymers such as poly(ethylene glycol) and its alternatives play a key role in shielding drug molecules and therapeutic proteins/genes from the immune system within nanoassemblies, thereby enabling effective delivery to target tissues. For coatings, antifouling polymers help to prevent adhesion of cells and molecules to surfaces and are thus valued in marine and biomedical device applications. In this Review, we survey recent advances in antifouling polymers in the context of nanomedicine and coatings, while shining the spotlight on the major polymer classes such as PEG, polyzwitterions, poly(oxazoline)s, and other nonionic hydrophilic polymers.

Tandem Cycloisomerization/Suzuki Coupling of Arylethynyl MIDA Boronates.

A tandem gold-catalyzed cycloisomerization/Suzuki cross coupling sequence involving arylethynyl-N-methyliminodiacetic acid boronates is described. Combining the mildness of homogeneous gold catalysis with the versatility of N-methyliminodiacetic acid (MIDA) boronates, this tandem two-step method enables the rapid assembly of various aryl-substituted heterocycles without having to isolate or purify any heterocyclic MIDA boronate intermediates. Another major advantage of this method is that a wide range of heterocycles bearing different aryl groups may be made from a single MIDA boronate alkyne precursor.

Direct Tracking Excited-State Intramolecular Charge Redistribution of Acceptor-Donor-Acceptor Molecule by Means of Femtosecond Stimulated Raman Spectroscopy.

Symmetric quadrupolar molecules generally exhibit apolar ground states and dipolar excited states in a polar environment, which is explained by the excited state evolution from initial charge delocalization over all molecules to localization on one branch of the molecules after a femtosecond pulse excitation. However, direct observation of excited-state charge redistribution (delocalization/localization) is hardly accessible. Here, the intramolecular charge delocalization/localization character of a newly synthesized acceptor-donor-acceptor molecule (ADA) has been intensively investigated by femtosecond stimulated Raman scattering (FSRS) together with femtosecond transient absorption (fs-TA) spectroscopy. By tracking the excited state Raman spectra of the specific alkynyl (-C≡C-) bonds at each branch of ADA, we found that the nature of the relaxed S1 state is strongly governed by solvent polarity: symmetric delocalized intramolecular charge transfer (ICT) characters occurred in apolar solvent, whereas the asymmetric localized ICT characters appeared in polar solvent because of solvation. The solvation dynamics of ADA extracted from fs-TA is consistent with the time constants obtained by FSRS, but the FSRS clearly tracks the excited state intramolecular charge transfer delocalization/localization.

Synthesis of J-aggregating dibenz[a,j]anthracene-based macrocycles.

Several fluorescent macrocycles based on 1,3-butadiyne-bridged dibenz[a,j]anthracene subunits have been synthesized via a multistep route. The synthetic strategy involved the initial construction of a functionalized dibenz[a,j]anthracene building block, subsequent installation of free alkyne groups on one side of the polycyclic aromatic framework, and a final cyclization based on a modified Glaser coupling under high-dilution conditions. Photophysical studies on three conjugated macrocycles revealed the formation of J-aggregates in thin films, as well as in concentrated solid solutions (polyisobutylene matrix), with peak absorption and emission wavelength in the range of lambda = 460-480 nm. The characteristic red-shifting of the J-aggregate features as compared to the monomer spectra, enhancement in absorption intensities, narrowed linewidths, and minimal Stokes shift values, were all observed. We demonstrate that improvements in spectral features can be brought about by annealing the films under a solvent-saturated atmosphere, where for the best films the luminescence quantum efficiency as high as 92% was measured. This class of macrocycles represents a new category of J-aggregates that due to their high peak oscillator strength and high luminescence efficiency have the potential to be utilized in a variety of optoelectronic devices.

Bisphosphonate inhibitors of ATP-mediated HIV-1 reverse transcriptase catalyzed excision of chain-terminating 3'-azido, 3'-deoxythymidine: a QSAR investigation.

We report the results of an investigation of the inhibition of the ATP-mediated HIV-1 reverse transcriptase catalyzed phosphorolysis in vitro of AZT from AZT-terminated DNA primers by a series of 42 bisphosphonates. The four most active compounds possess neutral, halogen-substituted phenyl or biphenyl sidechains and have IC(50) values < 1 microM in excision inhibition assays. Use of two comparative molecular similarity analysis methods to analyze these inhibition results yielded a classification model with an overall accuracy of 94%, and a regression model having good accord with experiment (q(2)=0.63, r(2)=0.91), with the experimental activities being predicted within, on average, a factor of 2. The most active species had little or no toxicity against three human cell lines (IC(50)(avg) > 200 microM). These results are of general interest since they suggest that it may be possible to develop potent bisphosphonate-based AZT-excision inhibitors with little cellular toxicity, opening up a new route to restoring AZT sensitivity in otherwise resistant HIV-1 strains.

Water-Dispersible Bismuth-Organic Materials with Computed Tomography Contrast Properties.

Two bismuth-organic network polymers were synthesized by means of a one-step polycondensation reaction between an aromatic dithiol/trithiol and triphenylbismuth. The materials were characterized by solid-state UV-vis spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, powder X-ray diffraction, elemental microanalysis, and thermogravimetric analysis. Uniform dispersion of the hydrophobic and water-insoluble bismuth-containing polymers in aqueous media was achieved by the addition of 2 kDa poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether thiol. This enabled quantitative phantom imaging experiments on a clinical computed tomography (CT) scanner, which showed that the coordination polymers possessed strong CT contrast properties. The observed X-ray attenuation properties of each coordination polymer were correlated with its bismuth payload. The X-ray opacity, thermal and chemical stabilities, and aqueous dispersibility of this novel class of bismuth-organic materials make them potentially useful as biomedical CT contrast agents and radiopaque materials.

Self-Assembled, Biodegradable Magnetic Resonance Imaging Agents: Organic Radical-Functionalized Diblock Copolymers.

We report the design, synthesis, and evaluation of biodegradable amphiphilic poly(ethylene glycol)-b-polycarbonate-based diblock copolymers containing pendant persistent organic radicals (e.g., PROXYL). These paramagnetic radical-functionalized polymers self-assemble into micellar nanoparticles in aqueous media, which preferentially accumulate in tumor tissue via the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. Through T1 relaxation NMR studies, as well as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies on mice, we show that these nanomaterials are effective as metal-free, biodegradable MRI contrast agents. We also demonstrate anticancer drugs can be readily loaded into the nanoparticles, conferring therapeutic delivery properties in addition to their imaging properties making these materials potential theranostic agents in the treatment of cancer.

Inhibition of Trypanosoma cruzi hexokinase by bisphosphonates.

Hexokinase is the first enzyme involved in glycolysis in most organisms, including the etiological agents of Chagas disease (Trypanosoma cruzi) and African sleeping sickness (Trypanosoma brucei). The T. cruzi enzyme is unusual since, unlike the human enzyme, it is inhibited by inorganic diphosphate (PPi). Here, we show that non-hydrolyzable analogues of PPi, bisphosphonates, are potent inhibitors of T. cruzi hexokinase (TcHK). We determined the activity of 42 bisphosphonates against TcHK, and the IC(50) values were used to construct pharmacophore and comparative molecular similarity indices analysis (CoMSIA) models for enzyme inhibition. Both models revealed the importance of electrostatic, hydrophobic, and steric interactions, and the IC(50) values for 17 active compounds were predicted with an average error of 2.4x by using the CoMSIA models. The compound most active against T. cruzi hexokinase was found to have a 2.2 microM IC(50) versus the clinically relevant intracellular amastigote form of T. cruzi, but only a approximately 1-2 mM IC(50) versus Dictyostelium discoideum and a human cell line, indicating selective activity versus T. cruzi.

Sultam-Based Hetero[5]helicene: Synthesis, Structure, and Crystallization-Induced Emission Enhancement.

A deep-blue-emitting sultam-based hetero[5]helicene was synthesized in four steps, and its crystal structure and physical properties were characterized. The helicene displays more than two-fold crystallization-induced emission enhancement as well as atypical blue-shifting of its solid-state emission relative to the solution phase. This rapid synthesis of an unusual sulfonamide-based helicene fluorophore is expected to generate new molecular design options that will help address the ongoing challenges associated with designing pure-blue emitters for organic optoelectronic and sensing applications.

Bisphosphonate inhibitors of Toxoplasma gondi growth: in vitro, QSAR, and in vivo investigations.

We have investigated the activity of 60 bisphosphonates against the replication of Toxoplasma gondii in vitro and of three of the most active compounds, in vivo. The two most active compounds found were n-alkyl bisphosphonates containing long (n = 9 or 10) hydrocarbon chains, not the nitrogen-containing species used in bone resorption therapy. The target of all of the most active bisphosphonates appears to be the isoprene biosynthesis pathway enzyme farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase (FPPS), as indicated by the correlations between T. gondii growth inhibition and FPPS (human and Leishmania major) enzyme inhibition and by the fact that a T. gondii strain engineered to overexpress FPPS required considerably higher levels of bisphosphonates to achieve 50% growth inhibition, while the IC(50) for atovaquone (which does not inhibit FPPS) remained the same in the overexpressing strain. The phosphonate inhibitor of the non-mevalonate pathway, fosmidomycin, which inhibits the enzyme 1-deoxyxylulose-5-phosphate reductoisomerase, had no effect on T. gondii growth. To investigate structure-activity relationships (SARs) in more detail, we used two three-dimensional quantitative SAR methods: comparative molecular field analysis (CoMFA) and comparative molecular similarity indices analysis (CoMSIA), to investigate all 60 bisphosphonates. Both the CoMFA and CoMSIA models indicated a 60-70% contribution from steric interactions and a 30-40% contribution from electrostatic interactions and using four N = 55 training sets for each method, we found on average between a factor of 2 and 3 error in IC(50) prediction. The three most active compounds found in vitro were tested in vivo in a Smith-Webster mouse model and the two most active bisphosphonates were found to provide up to an 80% protection from death, a considerable improvement over that found previously with nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates. This effect may originate in the much higher therapeutic indices of these alkyl bisphosphonates, as deduced from in vitro assays using LD(50) values for growth inhibition of a human cell line. Overall, these results indicate that alkyl bisphosphonates are promising compounds for further development as agents against Toxoplasma gondii growth, in vivo.

Bisphosphonate inhibition of the exopolyphosphatase activity of the Trypanosoma brucei soluble vacuolar pyrophosphatase.

Trypanosoma brucei, the causative agent of African trypanosomiasis, contains a soluble, vacuolar pyrophosphatase, TbVSP1, not present in humans, which is essential for the growth of bloodstream forms in their mammalian host. Here, we report the inhibition of a recombinant TbVSP1 expressed in Escherichia coli by a panel of 81 bisphosphonates. The IC50 values were found to vary from approximately 2 to 850 microM. We then used 3D QSAR (comparative molecular field and comparative molecular similarity index; CoMFA and CoMSIA) methods to analyze the enzyme inhibition results. The R2 values for the experimental versus the QSAR-predicted activities were 0.78 or 0.61 for CoMFA and 0.79 or 0.68 for CoMSIA, for two different alignments. The root-mean-square (rms) pIC50 error for the best CoMFA model was 0.41 for five test sets of five activity predictions, which translates to a factor of approximately 2.6 error in IC50 prediction. For CoMSIA, the rms pIC50 error and error factors were 0.35 and 2.2, respectively. In general, the most active compounds contained both a single aromatic ring and a hydrogen bond donor feature. Thirteen of the more potent compounds were then tested in vivo in a mouse model of T. brucei infection. The most active compound in vivo provided a 40% protection from death with no apparent side effects, suggesting that further development of such compounds may be of interest.

Pyridinium-1-yl bisphosphonates are potent inhibitors of farnesyl diphosphate synthase and bone resorption.

We report the design, synthesis and testing of a series of novel bisphosphonates, pyridinium-1-yl-hydroxy-bisphosphonates, based on the results of comparative molecular similarity indices analysis and pharmacophore modeling studies of farnesyl diphosphate synthase (FPPS) inhibition, human Vgamma2Vdelta2 T cell activation and bone resorption inhibition. The most potent molecules have high activity against an expressed FPPS from Leishmania major, in Dictyostelium discoideum growth inhibition, in gammadelta T cell activation and in an in vitro bone resorption assay. As such, they represent useful new leads for the discovery of new bone resorption, antiinfective and anticancer drugs.

Quantitative structure-activity relationships for gammadelta T cell activation by bisphosphonates.

gammadelta T cells are the first line of defense against many infectious organisms and are also involved in tumor cell surveillance and killing. They are stimulated by a broad range of small, phosphorus-containing antigens (phosphoantigens) as well as by the bisphosphonates commonly used in bone resorption therapy, such as pamidronate and risedronate. Here, we report the activation of gammadelta T cells by a broad range of bisphosphonates and develop a pharmacophore model for gammadelta T cell activation, in addition to using a comparative molecular similarity index analysis (CoMSIA) approach to make quantitative relationships between gammadelta T cell activation by bisphosphonates and their three-dimensional structures. The CoMSIA analyses yielded R(2) values of approximately 0.8-0.9 and q(2) values of approximately 0.5-0.6 for a training set of 45 compounds. Using an external test set, the activities (IC(50) values) of 16 compounds were predicted within a factor of 4.5, on average. The CoMSIA fields consisted of approximately 40% hydrophobic, approximately 40% electrostatic, and approximately 20% steric interactions. Since bisphosphonates are known to be potent, nanomolar inhibitors of the mevalonate/isoprene pathway enzyme farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase (FPPS), we also compared the pharmacophores for gammadelta T cell activation with those for FPPS inhibition, using the Catalyst program. The pharmacophores for gammadelta T cell activation and FPPS inhibition both consisted of two negative ionizable groups, a positive charge feature and an endocyclic carbon feature, all having very similar spatial dispositions. In addition, the CoMSIA fields were quite similar to those found for FPPS inhibition by bisphosphonates. The activities of the bisphosphonates in gammadelta T cell activation were highly correlated with their activities in FPPS inhibition: R = 0.88, p = 0.002, versus a human recombinant FPPS (N = 9 compounds); R = 0.82, p < 0.0001, for an expressed Leishmania major FPPS (N = 45 compounds). The bisphosphonate gammadelta T cell activation pharmacophore differs considerably, however, from that reported previously for gammadelta T cell activation by phosphoantigens (Gossman, W.; Oldfield, E. J. Med. Chem. 2002, 45, 4868-4874), suggesting different primary targets for the two classes of compounds. The ability to quite accurately predict the activity of bisphosphonates as gammadelta T cell activators by using 3D QSAR techniques can be expected to help facilitate the design of additional bisphosphonates for potential use in immunotherapy.