Metrics of progress in the understanding and management of threats to Australian birds.

Although evidence-based approaches have become commonplace for determining the success of conservation measures for the management of threatened taxa, there are no standard metrics for assessing progress in research or management. We developed 5 metrics to meet this need for threatened taxa and to quantify the need for further action and effective alleviation of threats. These metrics (research need, research achievement, management need, management achievement, and percent threat reduction) can be aggregated to examine trends for an individual taxon or for threats across multiple taxa. We tested the utility of these metrics by applying them to Australian threatened birds, which appears to be the first time that progress in research and management of threats has been assessed for all threatened taxa in a faunal group at a continental scale. Some research has been conducted on nearly three-quarters of known threats to taxa, and there is a clear understanding of how to alleviate nearly half of the threats with the highest impact. Some management has been attempted on nearly half the threats. Management outcomes ranged from successful trials to complete mitigation of the threat, including for one-third of high-impact threats. Progress in both research and management tended to be greater for taxa that were monitored or occurred on oceanic islands. Predation by cats had the highest potential threat score. However, there has been some success reducing the impact of cat predation, so climate change (particularly drought), now poses the greatest threat to Australian threatened birds. Our results demonstrate the potential for the proposed metrics to encapsulate the major trends in research and management of both threats and threatened taxa and provide a basis for international comparisons of evidence-based conservation science.

Medidas de Progreso en el Entendimiento y el Manejo de las Amenazas que Enfrentan las Aves Australianas Resumen Aunque los métodos basados en evidencias se han vuelto muy comunes para la determinación del éxito de las medidas de conservación del manejo de los taxones amenazados, hoy en día no existen medidas estandarizadas para la evaluación del progreso de la investigación o el manejo. Desarrollamos cinco medidas para cumplir con esta necesidad que tienen los taxones amenazados y para cuantificar la necesidad de una mayor acción y un alivio efectivo de las amenazas. Estas medidas (falta de investigación, éxito de la investigación, falta de manejo, éxito del manejo y porcentaje de reducción de amenazas) pueden agregarse para examinar las tendencias de un taxón individual o las tendencias de las amenazas para múltiples taxones. Probamos la utilidad de estas medidas por medio de su aplicación en aves australianas amenazadas, que parece ser la primera vez que se evalúa el progreso en la investigación y en el manejo de amenazas para el caso de varios taxones amenazados dentro de un grupo faunístico a escala continental. Se ha realizado algún tipo de investigación sobre casi tres cuartas partes de las amenazas conocidas para los taxones, y hay un claro entendimiento de cómo aliviar casi la mitad de las amenazas con el impacto más alto. Se ha intentado algún tipo de manejo con casi la mitad de las amenazas. Los resultados del manejo variaron desde ensayos exitosos hasta la mitigación completa de la amenaza, incluso para un tercio de las amenazas de alto impacto. Tanto el progreso en la investigación como en el manejo tendió a ser mayor para los taxones que estaban siendo monitoreados, o que ocurrían en islas oceánicas. La depredación por gatos tuvo el puntaje más como amenaza potencial. Sin embargo, ha habido poco de éxito en la reducción del impacto de la depredación por gatos, así que ahora el cambio climático (particularmente la sequía) es la mayor amenaza para las aves amenazadas en Australia. Nuestros resultados demuestran el potencial que tienen las medidas propuestas de encapsular las tendencias más importantes en la investigación y en el manejo tanto de las amenazas como de los taxones amenazados y de proporcionar una base para comparaciones internacionales de la ciencia de la conservación basada en evidencias.

Age and growth of mangrove red snapper Lutjanus argentimaculatus at its cool-water-range limits.

This study investigates the age and growth of Lutjanus argentimaculatus at its southern (cooler) range limits in eastern Australia. Specimens were collected from New South Wales and southern Queensland between November 2011 and December 2013. Fork lengths (LF ) ranged from 190 to 1019 mm, and ages ranged from 2+ to 57+ years. Growth was described by the von Bertalanffy growth function with coefficients L∞ = 874·92 mm, K = 0·087 year(-1) and t0 = -2·76 years. Estimates of the instantaneous natural mortality rate (M) ranged from 0·072 to 0·25. The LF (mm) and mass (W; g) relationship was represented by the equation: W=2·647×10-5LF2·92. The maximum age of 57+ years is the oldest reported for any lutjanid and comparisons with tropical studies suggest that the age-based demography of L. argentimaculatus follows a latitudinal gradient. High maximum ages and low natural mortality rates indicate considerable vulnerability to overexploitation at the species' cool-water-range limits. These results demonstrate the need to identify underlying processes driving latitudinal gradients in fish demography.

Why neotypification of emLophorina/em emsuperba/em (Pennant, 1781) (Aves: Paradisaeidae) is justified-and necessary.

We review Irestedt et al.'s (2017) neotypification of the senior species name superba Pennant, 1781 in the bird-of-paradise genus Lophorina in response to Elliott et al. (2020) who challenged the resultant shift in name from the small isolate in New Guinea's Vogelkop to the widespread species in the island's central cordillera. In nine male plumage traits which differentiate the two species, six of which had been identified as novel by Irestedt et al., we show that the only two figures of the perished male holotype of superba match the central cordillera species more closely than the Vogelkop. We find as well that not only was the trading of bird-of-paradise skins from the central cordillera to coastal ports in the Vogelkop feasible before European contact, but application of superba to the central cordillera species also promotes nomenclatural stability: the name has been used overwhelmingly at species rank for that widespread form throughout post-19th century media. Re-assessment of Irestedt et al.'s point-by-point justification of neotypification under Article 75.3 of the ICZN (1999) Code establishes, furthermore, that their case meets the requirements of every condition specified in the article; the neotypification is thus valid. Elliott et al.'s alternative to fix superba to the Vogelkop isolate by type locality restriction is not Code-compliant, nor is their evidence for interpreting J.R. Forster as the author of the name. In conclusion, we lay out the correct nomenclature for the taxa of Lophorina under the Code.

The use of echocardiography as a health assessment tool in green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas).

There are limited techniques available to assess the health of sea turtles as physical examination has little correlation to clinical findings, and blood reference intervals are broad and provide limited prognostic significance. Advances in the portability of ultrasound machines allow echocardiography to be increasingly used in the health assessments of wild animals. This study performed blood analysis and echocardiograms on 11 green sea turtles upon admission to a rehabilitation clinic and six animals before release. Significant differences were seen between groups, with admission animals having significantly smaller diameters of the cavum arteriosum at systole and diastole, smaller E-waves and an increased fractional shortening. Pre-release animals displayed significant increases in the maximum blood velocities of both the pulmonary artery and the left aorta. Significant negative correlations were seen between fractional shortening and uric acid and between the velocity time integral of the pulmonary artery and urea. The pulmonary artery velocity time integral was also significantly correlated to the E wave. Furthermore, there was asynchrony between the cavum arteriosum and the cavum pulmonale and the detection of a parasitic granuloma in the ventricular outflow tract of one animal. Overall, the results suggest that cardiac function in stranded green sea turtles is significantly impaired and that echocardiography has applications in the health assessments of green sea turtles.

Unravelling a biogeographical knot: origin of the 'leapfrog' distribution pattern of Australo-Papuan sooty owls (Strigiformes) and logrunners (Passeriformes).

Molecular analysis of two Australo-Papuan rainforest birds exhibiting correlated 'leapfrog' patterns were used to elucidate the evolutionary origin of this unusual pattern of geographical differentiation. In both sooty owls (Tyto) and logrunners (Orthonyx), phenotypically similar populations occupy widely disjunct areas (central-eastern Australia and upland New Guinea) with a third, highly distinctive population, occurring between them in northeastern Queensland. Two mechanisms have been proposed to explain the origin of leapfrog patterns in avian distributions: recent shared ancestry of terminal populations and unequal rates or phenotypic change among populations. As the former should generate correlated patterns of phenotypic and genetic differentiation, we tested for a sister relationship between populations from New Guinea and central-eastern Australia using nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequences. The resulting phylogenies not only refute recent ancestry as an explanation for the leapfrog pattern, but provide evidence of vastly different spatio-temporal histories for sooty owls and logrunners within the Australo-Papuan rainforests. This incongruence indicates that the evolutionary processes responsible for generating leapfrog patterns in these co-distributed taxa are complex, possibly involving a combination of selection and drift in sooty owls and convergence or retention of ancestral characteristics in logrunners.

Extensive chromosomal repatterning in two congeneric species: Pytilia melba, L. and Pytilia phoenicoptera Swainson (Estrildidae; Aves).

Chromosomal analysis of two species of African finches of the genus Pytilia has been carried out using both G- and C-banding. The karyotypes of these two species were found to differ radically, not only from each other, but also from those of other species in the family Estrildidae. The differences are due to paracentric and pericentric inversions and to tandem fusions. However, not all of the karyotypic differences can be explained by conventional mechanisms. These results are discussed in relation to the role of karyotypic rearrangement in avian evolution and the conversion of microchromosomes to macrochromosomes.

Impaired spermatogenesis in the finch hybrid L. castaneothorax by L. punctulata: transmission electron microscopy and genetic analysis.

As part of a project to determine whether there is any correlation between the form of hybrid sterility and the genetic relatedness of the parental species, we studied a male intrageneric hybrid between two finch species (Lonchura castaneothorax X L. punctulata), and compared the ultrastructural basis of hybrid sterility in this species with that reported by Swan [1985] for an intergeneric bird hybrid. In the latter study the sterility appeared to have an autoimmune basis, due to lack of Sertoli-Sertoli tight junctions. In the hybrid examined in the present study, lanthanum tracing showed that the junctions were tight. There was no testicular immune reaction; the parental species were almost identical in chromosomal constitution, having only a small inversion difference on chromosome 5, and only two structural protein differences could be detected through examination of the variation at 38 protein loci. Nevertheless, the hybrid appeared sterile and had the following ultrastructural testicular features. Intercellular bridges where present were usually abnormal in structure; centrioles in a centriole pair were arranged in parallel. Many spermatocytes and spermatids degenerated and were phagocytosed by Sertoli cells. Some spermatids progressed to mature testicular spermatozoa in sperm bundles, but commonly had multiple (2-4) axonemes or disrupted doublets and accessory fibers. The multiple axonemes present in most spermatids inserted separately into the base of the nucleus and the multiple centrioles were capable of organizing separate neck structures. We conclude that these cytological abnormalities were caused by genic effects and discuss why they appeared to be restricted to the germ line.

Molecular phylogenetics of Australo-Papuan possums and gliders (family Petauridae).

Phylogenetic relationships within the possums of the family Petauridae, including their affinities with the family Pseudocheiridae, were inferred from DNA sequences obtained for the mitochondrial ND2 gene (1040 bp) combined with previously published partial 12S rDNA sequences. Short, deep internodes characterize some of the divergences obtained. The robustness of these nodes was assessed by several methods such as exclusion of taxa and partitioning of characters. In all analyses a monophyletic Pseudocheiridae was evident, whereas a monophyletic Petauridae was not as well supported. Within the Petauridae, Gymnobelideus was more closely related to Dactylopsila-Dactylonax than to Petaurus. This supports the results obtained from microcomplement fixation of albumin and DNA-DNA hybridization studies but conflicts with morphological data.

Molecular systematics and biogeography of the bent-wing bat complex Miniopterus schreibersii (Kuhl, 1817) (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae).

The complete mitochondrial ND2 gene (1037 bp) was sequenced to examine relationships within the bent-wing bat complex, Miniopterus schreibersii (Family Vespertilionidae). It was found that M. schreibersii is a paraphyletic assemblage comprising several species. Two major lineages were identified, one of which was restricted to the Palearctic-Ethiopian regions and the other to the Oriental-Australasian regions. This pattern of differentiation was mirrored by the genus as a whole. Speciation and differentiation within the genus Miniopterus appears to have a hierarchical geographical pattern. The earliest divergence corresponds to the Ethiopian-Palearctic and the Oriental-Australasian biogeographical zones. This early divergence is then followed by radiations within each of the Ethiopian, Oriental and Australasian regions. The study also revealed that the number of species currently recognized (11 or 13) is a gross underestimate of the number of actual species. The emerging picture is one of a relatively speciose genus with most species having relatively restricted distributions; few, if any, occur in more than one biogeographical region.

Were bowerbirds part of the New Zealand fauna?

Bowerbirds (Ptilonorhynchidae) have previously been considered to be confined to the Australo-Papuan continental plate. We provide molecular evidence that the extinct New Zealand Piopio Turnagra capensis is, in fact, a bowerbird. Such a finding is surprising on biogeographical grounds. However, recent molecular evidence on the relationships of the New Zealand moas and kiwis with the Australo-Papuan flightless birds suggests the need for a reassessment of current views on the origins of New Zealand's fauna.

Molecular phylogenetics of the Diprotodontia (kangaroos, wombats, koala, possums, and allies).

Mitochondrial ND2 sequences were used to investigate the phylogenetic relationships amongst 31 diprotodontid marsupials (kangaroos, wombats, koala, possums, and allies). ND2 sequences were analyzed separately and in conjunction with available 12S rDNA sequences for 22 diprotodontid taxa. Phylogenetic analyses consistently identified monophyly for the Burramyoidea, Phalangeroidea, Petauroidea, Tarsipedoidea, Macropodoidea, and the Vombatiformes. Like previous molecular and morphological studies, relationships between the super-families were less well resolved. Inconsistency between taxonomic rank and genetic distance was identified amongst the diprotodontids.

Genetic distinctness of isolated populations of an endangered marsupial, the mountain pygmy-possum, Burramys parvus.

The mountain pygmy-possum, Burramys parvus, exists in isolated and fragmented populations in the Australian alps. To examine the degree of interpopulation divergence, mitochondrial cytochrome b and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 (NADH2) sequences were obtained from samples representing all populations of B. parvus. Three divergent mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) lineages were identified which exhibited strong phylogeographical structure. This indicates the presence of three maternal clades corresponding to populations in the northern, central and southern Australian alps. Molecular clock estimates suggest that the mtDNA lineages diverged from one another 420-680 thousand years ago. On this basis it is argued that B. parvus populations have probably been isolated since the mid-Pleistocene, and that management should focus on maintaining viable B. parvus populations in each of the three regional localities.