Variation in monthly and seasonal elevation use impacts behavioral and dietary flexibility in Rhinopithecus bieti.

Black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) rely on behavioral and dietary flexibility to survive in temperate latitudes at high-elevation habitats characterized by climate and resource seasonality. However, little is known about how elevation influences their behavioral and dietary flexibility at monthly or seasonal scales. We studied an isolated R. bieti population at Mt. Lasha in the Yunling Provincial Nature Reserve, Yunnan, China, between May 2008 and August 2016 to assess the impacts of elevation on feeding behavior and diet. Across our sample, R. bieti occupied elevations between 3031 and 3637 m above mean sea level (amsl), with a 315.1 m amsl range across months and a 247.3 m amsl range across seasons. Contrary to expectations, individuals spent less time feeding when ranging across higher elevations. Lichen consumption correlated with elevation use across months and seasons, with individuals spending more time feeding on this important resource at higher elevations. Leaf consumption only correlated with elevation use during the spring. Our results suggest that R. bieti do not maximize their food intake at higher elevations and that monthly and seasonal changes in lichen and leaf consumption largely explain variation in elevation use. These findings shed light on the responses of R. bieti to environmental change and offer insight into strategies for conserving their habitats in the face of anthropogenic disturbance.

Effects of food availability and climate on the activity budget of Shortridge's langur (Trachypithecus shortridgei) in the Drung Valley, Gaoligong Mountains, China.

Food availability and climate represent environmental factors that affect species' social behavior, ranging patterns, diet, and activity budget. From August 2012 to September 2013, we examined the effects of seasonal changes in food availability, temperature, and rainfall on the diet and behavioral ecology of Shortridge's langur (Trachypithecus shortridgei) an Endangered primate species inhabiting moist evergreen broadleaf forests in the Eastern Himalayas. Our field site represents the northernmost latitudinal distribution of this species. Data were collected using scan sampling at 10 min intervals, and analyzed based on generalized linear models. The results indicate that the langurs experienced two feeding peaks (9:00 and 17:00) and two traveling peaks (10:00 and 19:00) during each day. Periods of rest, mainly occurred between 10:00 and 13:00, and overnight. Feeding accounted for 38.5% of the daily activity budget, followed by resting (35%), traveling (24.5%), and socializing (2%). During periods when young leaves were most available, the langurs increased feeding time on young leaves (35% vs. 4%). During periods of maximum fruit availability, the langurs decreased total time spent feeding (36.6% vs. 40.4%), devoted more time to traveling (28.1% vs. 21%), and increased time spent consuming fruit (49.1% vs. 11.8%). During the winter, the langurs increased their consumption of mature leaves (44.5%) and reduced time spent traveling (20.2% vs. 25.4%). Overall, time spent resting was greatest in the spring (47.5%), time spent feeding was greatest during the summer (51.1%), and time spent in traveling was greatest in the autumn (33.2%). The frequency of social interactions remained relatively constant throughout the year. Foraging effort was greatest in the summer, when fruits dominated the diet. Like other species of temperate langurs, T. shortridgei devoted less time to resting, more time to feeding, and was characterized by a greater year-round foraging effort than tropical/subtropical langurs.

Effects of provisioning on the activity budget and foraging strategies of black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) in the Baima Snow Mountain Nature Reserve, Yunnan, China.

Provisioning can significantly affect the ranging patterns, foraging strategies, and time budget of wild primates. In this study, we document for the first time, the effects of provisioning on the activity budget and foraging effort in an Asian colobine. Over 3-years, we used an instantaneous scanning method at 10-min intervals to collect data on the activity budget of a semiprovisioned breeding band (SPB) of black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) (42-70 individuals) at Xiangguqing (Tacheng), Yunnan, China. We then compared the effects of provisioning in our study band with published data on a sympatric wild nonprovisioned breeding band (NPB) of R. bieti (ca. 360 monkeys) at the same field site. The SPB spent 25.6% of their daytime feeding, 17.1% traveling, 46.9% resting, and 10.3% socializing. In comparison, the NPB devoted more time to feeding (34.9%) and socializing (14.1%), less time to resting (31.3%), and was characterized by a greater foraging effort (1.74 versus 0.96, foraging effort = (feeding + traveling)/resting; see Methods). There was no difference between bands in the proportion of their activity budget devoted to traveling (15.7% vs. 17.1%). In addition, the SPB exhibited a more consistent activity budget and foraging effort across all seasons of the year compared to the NPB. These findings suggest that the distribution, availability, and productivity of naturally occurring feeding sites is a major determinant of the behavioral strategies and activity budget of R. bieti. Finally, a comparison of our results with data on six nonprovisioned R. bieti bands indicates that caution must be raised in meta-analyses or intraspecific comparisons of primate behavioral ecology that contain data generated from both provisioned and nonprovisioned groups.

Effects of group density, hunting, and temperature on the singing patterns of eastern hoolock gibbons (Hoolock leuconedys) in Gaoligongshan, Southwest China.

Many non-human primates produce species-specific loud calls to communicate within and between groups over long distances. Understanding these calling patterns can provide insights into how individuals modify their behavior in response to environmental variables as well as help to design efficient bioacoustic survey techniques. Eastern hoolock gibbons in Gaoligongshan inhabit the coldest habitat of all gibbon populations, but both conservation and research efforts on this population have been minimal. We studied singing patterns of two habituated and two unhabituated groups at two sites in Gaoligongshan between July 2010 and June 2015. We systematically collected data of their calls, and its relationship to temperature, group density, and hunting pressure over at least 1 year for each group. Our goal was to elucidate how these factors affect singing patterns of eastern hoolock gibbons. We found that adult pairs coordinated their singing to produce duet bouts that lasted for an average of 25.5 min. The singing rate (number of bouts/number on monitoring days*100%: 7.5-31.4%) was notably lower than other gibbon populations, presumably due to low group density (about 0.5 groups/km(2) ) and prevalence of hunting at the study site. Cold temperature also affected gibbons' singing behavior. Our study groups called, on average, 2.5 hr after sunrise, probably foraging first in the early morning after long nights in this cold habitat delayed singing. Furthermore, mean temperatures in the morning (8:00-12:00 am) were higher on singing days than on non-singing days, and one group called less frequently when monthly mean temperature was below 10°C. Our findings indicate that both hunting pressure from humans and low temperatures suppress calling behavior in hoolock gibbons. Such information is critical in evaluating the use of duetting as a monitoring technique for this endangered gibbon species. Am. J. Primatol. 78:861-871, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Ontogenetic Development of Sexual Dimorphism in Body Mass of Wild Black-and-White Snub-Nosed Monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti).

Sexual dimorphism exists widely in animals, manifesting in different forms, such as body size, color, shape, unique characteristics, behavior, and sound. Of these, body mass dimorphism is the most obvious. Studies of evolutionary and ontogenetic development and adaptation mechanisms of animals' sexual dimorphism in body mass (SDBM), allow us to understand how environment, social group size, diet, and other external factors have driven the selection of sexual dimorphism. There are fewer reports of the ontogenetic development of sexual dimorphism in body mass in Rhinopithecus. This study explores the ontogenetic development pattern of SDBM in wild black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (R. bieti), and the causes resulting in extreme sexual dimorphism compared to other colobines. A significant dimorphism with a ratio of 1.27 (p < 0.001) appears when females enter the reproductive period around six years old, reaching a peak (1.85, p < 0.001) when males become sexually mature. After the age of eight, the SDBM falls to 1.78, but is still significant (p < 0.001). The results also indicate that males had a longer body mass growth period than females (8 years vs. 5 years); females in larger breeding units had a significantly higher SDBM than those in smaller ones (2.12 vs. 1.93, p < 0.01). A comparative analysis with other colobines further clarifies that Rhinopithecus and Nasalis, which both have multilevel social organization, have the highest degree of SDBM among all colobines. The large SDBM in R. bieti can be explained through Bergman's and Rensch's rules. Overall, environmental adaptation, a distinctive alimentary system, and a complex social structure contribute to R. bieti having such a remarkable SDBM compared to other colobines. In addition, we found that females' choice for males may not be significantly related to the development of SDBM.

Preliminary study on dietary selection in Shortridge's langurs ( Trachypithecus shortridgei) from China.

Understanding dietary selection and feeding strategies is important for the conservation and management of endangered primate species. Here, we conducted a preliminary study on the diet and feeding behavior of endangered Shortridge's langurs ( Trachypithecus shortridgei) within the Drung River Valley (Dulongjiang) in southwestern China. The study site lies at a high latitude (N27°47.5') and elevation (1 900 m a.s.l.) and is characterized by substantial annual rainfall (2 745.1 mm). From August 2012 to September 2013, we observed five groups of langurs and analyzed their overall food composition and dietary variation in spring and autumn. To understand their dietary adaptations to the distinctive habitat of the Drung River Valley, we also compared the diet of Shortridge's langurs to that of other Trachypithecus species inhabiting different environments. Results indicated that T. shortridgei fed on 52 plant species, 23 of which each accounted for ≥1% of their annual feeding time. Their primary dietary components included leaves (46.2%, young, mature, and petioles), fruits (28.7%, unripe 17.6%, ripe 11.1%), and mosses (10.2%). The langurs mainly consumed mature (34.2%) and young leaves (27.5%) in spring and ripe fruits (39.4%) and mature leaves (24.7%) in autumn. Two species of moss ( Macrothamnium macrocarpum and Scapania verrucosa, 21.2% of annual feeding time), which are usually found growing together on cliffs, played a relatively important role in the diet of T. shortridgei. The langurs mainly consumed ripe fruits of Saurauia napaulensis (7.1%) and Dendropanax burmanicus (7.1%), which were abundant at lower elevations. Trachypithecus species in temperate forests consumed more fruits and seeds but fewer leaves (similar mature leaves but fewer young leaves) than those species in tropical forests, which may be related to their availability and abundance. Compared to Trachypithecus species in temperate forests, the higher proportion of mosses and mature leaves but fewer young leaves in the annual diet of T. shortridgei are likely a response to the distinctive Drung River Valley habitat. Therefore, conservation of the main food plants of this threatened species could be vital for its survival and conservation management.

The effective use of camera traps to document the northernmost distribution of the western black crested gibbon in China.

Gibbons represent a highly successful radiation of four genera and 20 species of Asian apes that, in response to recent habitat fragmentation and deforestation, are threatened with extinction. China has six species of gibbons, each of which is critically endangered. We present new biogeographical information on the distribution of the black crested gibbon (Nomascus concolor). Four subspecies of N. concolor have been described: three of them are present east of the Mekong River (Nomascus concolor jingdongensis, N. c. concolor and N. c. lu); and another is found west of the Mekong River (N. c. furvogaster). In addition, there has been speculation that gibbons exist in the Biluo Snow Mountains, between the Mekong and Salween basins. To clarify the biogeography of this species, from April 2011 to January 2012 and from January 2016 to September 2018, we conducted interviews with local villagers, completed line transect surveys, monitored gibbon calls, and placed 30 camera traps in the forest canopy. On October 30, 2016, we recorded gibbon's calls. On July 5, 2016, our camera traps obtained one image of a male gibbon, and on February 1 and 8, 2017, we captured two independent images of an adult female gibbon on Zhiben Mountains. Based on the black crest on the head, clearly visible in the photographs, the gibbons are N. c. furvogaster. Evidence from interviews and survey records indicate that N. c. furvogaster once was present in the Zhiben Mountains, at an altitude of between 2000 and 2700 m. Between 1990 and 2000, some 6-7 groups still existed in Caojian, Laowo and adjacent areas. Unfortunately, in the absence of an effective conservation strategy, the population was extirpated by hunters. The remaining forest in the Zhiben Mountains is highly fragmented, and most of the suitable habitat for gibbons has been lost. Therefore, we expect that this newly found gibbon population is under extreme anthropogenic pressure. It is imperative that further investigations of this gibbon population be conducted immediately, and that the local and national governments implement effective conservation plans, including educating the local communities to protect this critically endangered primate population.

Effects of reflective warning markers on wildlife.

Light pollution has become one of the top issues in environmental pollution, especially concerning how secondary light pollution, such as from traffic reflective materials, influences animal distribution and behavior. In this study, 15 camera traps were set up at sites with or without reflective warning markers (RWM) in coniferous forests on Cangshan Mountain located in Dali Prefecture, China. The results showed that the number of independent photographs and species at sites without RWMs were significantly higher than those at sites with RWMs. Significant differences were found between daytime and nighttime composition of bird species and non-flying mammals between two sites. This study found that RWMs had negative effects on wildlife, with the avoidance response of birds to RWMs being more obvious than that of animals at daytime. It is recommended that the use of reflective materials be carefully considered, especially in protected areas.

Black-and-white snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti) feeding behavior in a degraded forest fragment: clues to a stressed population.

Rapid global deforestation has forced many of the world's primates to live in fragmented habitats, making the understanding of their behavioral responses to degraded and fragmented habitats a key challenge for their future protection and management. The black-and-white snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti) is an endangered species endemic to southwest China. The forest habitat ranges from near-continuous to fragmented. In this study, we investigated the activity budget and diet of a R. bieti population that live in an isolated and degraded habitat patch at Mt. Lasha in Yunnan Province, near the current southern limit of the species. We used our data along with data from six other sites in more-continuous habitats across its range to model factors that predict stress, including feeding effort and time feeding on lichens against potential predictive parameters. Models showed feeding effort across all sites increased with increasing altitude and latitude, and with decreasing food species diversity. There was also a strong positive relationship between feeding effort and time feeding lichens. The Mt. Lasha R. bieti population exploited a total of 36 food species, spending 80.2% of feeding time feeding on lichens, Bryoria spp. and Usnea longissima. These figures are more comparable to those living in the north than those living in the mid- and southern part of the species' range. Given the models for feeding effort and time feeding on lichens, the unexpectedly high time spend feeding on lichens and feeding effort relative to latitude and elevation are suggestive of a stressed population at Mt. Lasha.

The breeding biology of Red-Whiskered Bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus) in Xishuangbanna, southwest China.

To fill the gap in breeding biology information about the Red-Whiskered Bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus), in 2013, we studied the breeding biology of this species in Xishuangbanna, southwest China. The breeding began from February and continued until early August. The breeding strategy of P. jocosus was more flexible and their nests were only built in cultivated landscapes, whereas, no nest building in native tropical rain forest was found. Small open cup nests were built on 50 different plant species, and at heights ranging from 2.1±0.6 m above the ground (n=102). The mean clutch size was 2.53±0.51 eggs (n=40) and the mean egg mass was 2.81±0.25 g (n=60). The average incubation period was 11.1±0.5 days (n=14), and the average nestling period was 11.0±0.8 days (n=31). The overall nest success was 34.22%.The hatching and fledging showed either asynchrony or synchrony. Invertebrate food decreased with nestling age, whereas, plant food increased with nestling age. Moreover, distinct parental roles of the parents in nestling period were found. Compared with other passerine species, P. jocosus spent less time in incubating (58%). The clutch size, incubation and nestling period of the P. jocosus in southwest China were different from those of the P. jocosus in India.

Social organization of Shortridge's capped langur (Trachypithecus shortridgei) at the Dulongjiang Valley in Yunnan, China.

Non-human primates often live in socially stable groups characterized by bonded relationships among individuals. Social organization can be used to evaluate living conditions and expansion potential. Bisexual group size, ratio of males to females and group composition are essential elements determining the type of social organization. Although the first report on Shortridge's capped langurs (Trachypithecus shortridgei) was in the 1970s, until now, the species only inhabits forests of the Dulongjiang valley in northwest Yunnan, China, with c. 250-370 individuals in 19 populations. To understand its social organization, we collected data from five groups of Shortridge's langurs at Silaluo in the Dulongjiang valley during August 2012-October 2013. Family groups consist of one adult male, 2-3 adult females and up to five young. Group size averaged 8 (7-9) individuals. The ratio of adult males to females (M/F) was 1:2.9, infants to adult females was (I/F) 1:2.2; and ratio of adults to immatures was 1:1.2, indicating the potential of a population increasing. Birth season was during March-July and the inter-birth interval was two years.

Dominance hierarchy and social relationships in a group of captive black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti).

Different types of dominance hierarchies reflect different social relationships in primates. In this study, we clarified the hierarchy and social relationships in a one-male unit of captive Rhinopithecus bieti observed between August 1998 and March 1999. Mean frequency of agonistic behaviour among adult females was 0.13 interactions per hour. Adult females exhibited a linear hierarchy with a reversal of 10.9%, indicating an unstable relationship; therefore, R. bieti appears to be a relaxed/tolerant species. The lack of a relationship between the agonistic ratio of the adult male towards adult females and their ranks indicated that males did not show increased aggression towards low-ranking females. Differentiated female affiliative relationships were loosely formed in terms of the male, and to some extent influenced by female estrus, implying that relationships between the male and females is influenced by estrus and not rank alone. A positive correlation between the agonistic ratio of adult females and their ranks showed that the degree to which one female negatively impacted others decreased with reduction in rank. Similarly, a positive correlation between the agonistic ratio of females and differences in rank suggests that a female had fewer negative effects on closely ranked individuals than distantly ranked ones. These data indicate that rank may influence relationships between females. A steeper slope of regression between the agonistic ratio and inter-female rank differences indicated that the extent of the power difference in high-ranking females exerting negative effects on low-ranking ones was larger during the mating season than the birth season, suggesting that rank may influence the mating success of females.

Individuality and stability in male songs of cao vit gibbons (Nomascus nasutus) with potential to monitor population dynamics.

Vocal individuality and stability has been used to conduct population surveys, monitor population dynamics, and detect dispersal patterns in avian studies. To our knowledge, it has never been used in these kinds of studies among primates. The cao vit gibbon is a critically endangered species with only one small population living in a karst forest along China-Vietnam border. Due to the difficult karst terrain, an international border, long life history, and similarity in male morphology, detailed monitoring of population dynamics and dispersal patterns are not possible using traditional observation methods. In this paper, we test individuality and stability in male songs of cao vit gibbons. We then discuss the possibility of using vocal individuality for population surveys and monitoring population dynamics and dispersal patterns. Significant individuality of vocalization was detected in all 9 males, and the correct rate of individual identification yielded by discriminant function analysis using a subset of variables was satisfactory (>90%). Vocal stability over 2-6 years was also documented in 4 males. Several characters of cao vit gibbons allowed long-term population monitoring using vocal recordings in both China and Vietnam: 1) regular loud calls, 2) strong individuality and stability in male songs, 3) stable territories, and 4) long male tenure. During the course of this research, we also observed one male replacement (confirmed by vocal analysis). This time- and labor-saving method might be the most effective way to detect dispersal patterns in this transboundary population.

Ranging behavior of eastern hoolock gibbon (Hoolock leuconedys) in a northern montane forest in Gaoligongshan, Yunnan, China.

Generally, food abundance and distribution exert important influence on primate ranging behavior. Hoolock gibbons (genus Hoolock) live in lowland and montane forests in India, Bangladesh, Myanmar and China. All information about hoolock gibbons comes from studies on western hoolock gibbons (Hoolock hoolock) living in lowland forest. Between August 2010 and September 2011, we studied the ranging behavior of one habituated group of eastern hoolock gibbon (H. leuconedys) living in a seasonal montane forest in Gaoligongshan, Yunnan, China. Results show that the study group did not increase foraging effort, calculated in this study as the daily path length, when fruit was less available. Instead, the gibbons fed more on leaves and decreased traveling to conserve energy. They relied heavily on a single food species in most study months which was patchily distributed within their total (14-month) home range, and during most months they used only a small portion of their total home range. In order to find enough food, the group shifted its monthly home range according to the seasonal availability of food species. To satisfy their annual food requirements, they occupied a total home range of 93 ha. The absence of neighboring groups of gibbons and the presence of tsaoko cardamom (Amomum tsaoko) plantations may also have influenced the ranging behavior of the group. Further long-term studies of neighboring groups living in intact forests are required to assess these effects.

Effects of tsaoko (Fructus tsaoko) cultivating on tree diversity and canopy structure in the habitats of eastern hoolock gibbon (Hoolock leuconedys).

In this study, the quadrat method was used to study the effects of tsaoko (Fructus tsaoko) plantation on tree diversity and canopy structure of two natural habitats of eastern hoolock gibbon (Hoolock leuconedys): Nankang (characterized by extensive tsaoko plantation) and Banchang (relatively well reserved and without tsaoko plantation). Totally, 102 tree species from 25 families and 16 woody liana species from 10 families were recorded in Nankang, whereas 108 tree species from 30 families and 17 woody liana species from 12 families were recorded in Banchang. Although the tree species between two habitats is different, both habitats are characterized by enriched food resources for eastern hoolock gibbons, sharing similar dominant plant families. Due to tsaoko plantation, tree density proportion and diversity of forest layerⅠ (>20 m) in Nankang were both significantly decreased, but the tree density of layerⅡ (10-20 m) increased. Likewise, in conjunction with these behavioral observations, we also address potential impacts of tsaoko plantation on the behavior of eastern hoolock gibbon.

Birth seasonality and pattern in black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) at Mt. Lasha, Yunnan.

Seasonal variation in environmental factors is vital to the regulation of seasonal reproduction in primates. Consequently, long-term systematic data is necessary to clarify the birth seasonality and pattern of primates in highly seasonal environments. This study indicated that black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) at Mt. Lasha exhibited strict birth seasonality with a pulse model. Infants were born with a certain degree of synchronization. Birth distribution showed three birth peaks, and the birth pattern showed a "V" style in even-numbered years and a gradual increase in odd-numbered years. The beginning date, end date and median birth date were earlier in even-numbered years than those in odd-numbered years. The higher latitude of their habitats, earlier birth date, shorter birth period, fewer birth peaks and stronger birth synchrony might be adaptations for strongly seasonal variation in climate and food resources. After the summer solstice when daylight length began to gradually shorten, R. bieti at Mt. Lasha started to breed during the period with the highest environmental temperature and food availability, which implied that photoperiod may be the proximate factor triggering the onset of estrus and mating. It appears that R. bieti coincided conception and mid-lactation with the peak in staple foods, and weaning with the peak in high quality of foods. Thus, food availability was the ultimate factor regulating reproductive seasonality, and photoperiod was the proximate factor fine-turning the coordination between seasonal breeding and food availability.

[Spring food selection by Rhinopithecus bieti at Mt. Lasha in relation to phytochemical components].

Food selection by folivorous primates is thought to relate to macronutrients, micronutrients and plant secondary metabolites. However, few studies explain their effects on food choices. This study was designed to clarify the effect of phytochemical components on Rhinopithecus bieti food choice by analyzing the chemical composition of food samples collected from March to May in 2010 and 2011 at Mt. Lasha in northwest Yunnan, China. Compared with non-foods, there was more phosphorous and crude protein, less total sugar and a lower ratio of calcium to phosphorus in selected foods. However, no differences were found in crude fat, crude ash, calcium and tannin content between foods and non-foods. Phytochemical constituents may influence food choices; the monkeys preferred foods with high phosphorus and low Ca/P, low calcium, low sugar and low tannins. Rhinopithecus bieti foraged high quality foods such as buds and young leaves to meet their nutritional needs after a long winter. Therefore, if tannin content in food did not exceed the enduring threshold of R. bieti, the nutrient intake was prioritized by phosphorus and calcium regulation when the need for macronutrients dominated by protein was satisfied.

Seasonality of reproduction of wild black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) at Mt. Lasha, Yunnan, China.

Black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) inhabit one of the harshest habitats by any nonhuman primate. Reliable predictive cues to initiate reproduction may be particularly critical for R. bieti because they inhabit such seasonally energetically challenging environments. To better understand the seasonal distribution of and predictive cues to reproduction, we collected breeding and birth data in a population of R. bieti at Mt. Lasha in Yunling Nature Reserve, Yunnan, China, from January 2008 to May 2010, using a combination of 10-min instantaneous scans and ad libitum observations. We examined variations in temperature, rainfall, and food availability, as well as photoperiod differences between Mt. Lasha and the more northerly Xiaochangdu to identify environmental influences on the timing of reproductive events. Our data show the area exhibited distinct seasonal fluctuations in rainfall, temperature, and food availability. Mating occurred year-round, but peaked in August, coinciding with the end of the period of highest temperatures and food availability, and during the peak rainfall. Copulation frequency peaked 1 month after corresponding peaks in staple foods, rainfall, and minimum temperatures, and 3-4 months after peaks in high-quality foods. Births were significantly seasonal, with a birth peak from mid-February to early April, and a mean birth date of 14 March. Eleven births occurred in 41 days in 2009, and 16 births occurred in 52 days in 2010. Births occurred during periods of increasing temperatures and food availability. Our findings are suggestive of at least one environmental control of conception timing, and support the notion that food availability during key reproductive stages is an ultimate factor for birth seasonality, but provide no supporting evidence for photoperiod during the conception season as a proximate cue to reproduction in R. bieti.

[Mating behavior and birth seasonality of black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) at Mt. Lasha].

Copulation patterns are important to understanding male mating strategies and stabilization strategies of social organizations in primates. However, information on copulation patterns of Asian primates is relatively rare. This study was undertaken to collect data on mating behavior and birth seasonality of Black-and-white Snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) using all occurrence sampling and Focal animal-scan sampling methods at Mt. Lasha, between January and December, 2011. Our study focused on observing mating frequency and birth rates. Snub-nosed monkeys mate year round, with two observable peaks: one reproductive peak during the mating season, roughly from August to October, and a second non-breeding peak during the birth season. It is unclear what biological significance this non-reproductive mating peak has. During our observation, we noted a lower ratio of mount to ejaculation and rare ejaculatory copulations, which indicated that every mating would not result in ejaculation. This study corroborates the previous view that the Rhinopithecus bieti's copulatory pattern is likely multiple-mount ejaculation (MME) or at the upper part of mating continuum of single-mount ejaculation (SME) toward MME. More ejaculatory copulations initiated by males than females indicate that MME is not only a mating strategy of males, but that males can influence the position of their copulatory pattern on the continuum between SME and MME. The mating frequencies significantly correlated with the birth rates with a delay of 6 to 7 months. Monkeys gave birth within a strict seasonality with a birth peak of March, which confirms the previous view. Infants were born with a certain degree of synchronization, but different populations displayed different modes of synchronizations.

Positive influence of traditional culture and socioeconomic activity on conservation: a case study from the black-and-white snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti) in Tibet.

Found in the Trans-Himalayas of north-west Yunnan and south-east Tibet, the black-and-white snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti) is one of the world's most endangered primates. A recent survey indicates that only 15 groups with 2500 individuals remain in the wild. However, the Tibetan Xiaochangdu group may be the only equilibrium group in the field since the last investigation in 1988. To evaluate the effects of traditional culture and socioeconomic activity on biodiversity conservation of R. bieti, we conducted a case study in the Honglaxueshan National Nature Reserve in southeast Tibet from June 2003 to May 2005. Interviews, direct observations, and analysis of socioeconomic data indicated major advantages to the conservation of R. bieti, which included that: 1) traditional culture mainly depended on raising livestock and collecting non-timber products rather than forest planting of Tibetan highland barley; 2) religious beliefs, against to kill any wildlife living on the sacred mountain, were mainly influenced by Tibetan Buddhism; and 3) bigger household numbers were induced by the polyandrous marriage system, which resulted in lower per capita resource consumption than smaller ones.