Parent programs for latino families with young children: social, cultural, and linguistic considerations.

It is likely that speech-language pathologists (SLPs) will be called upon to serve the growing numbers of children under age 5 from Latino families. Families are considered central to implementing language facilitation strategies at this age. These strategies must be both culturally informed and also focus on naturally occurring experiences in children's homes. However, few existing early intervention programs are specific to the cultural values and language learning experiences of young Latino children. This article reviews the current knowledge base on the early language learning experiences of these children and provides SLPs implementing family programs with suggestions on adapting family-centered language facilitation techniques to this population.

Depression, Control, and Climate: An Examination of Factors Impacting Teaching Quality in Preschool Classrooms.

RESEARCH FINDINGS: This study investigated the relationship of preschool teachers' self-reported depressive symptomatology, perception of classroom control, and perception of school climate to classroom quality as measured by the Classroom Assessment Scoring System Pre-K. The sample consisted of 59 urban preschool classrooms serving low-income and linguistically diverse students in the northeastern and southeastern United States. Results of hierarchical linear modeling revealed that teachers' individual reports of depressive symptomatology were significantly and negatively predictive of the observed quality of their instructional support and classroom organization. PRACTICE OR POLICY: The findings of this study have implications for increasing access to mental health supports for teachers in an effort to minimize depressive symptoms and potentially improve classroom quality.

Sentence Diversity in Spanish-English Bilingual Toddlers.

PURPOSE: There remain few available tools to assess language development in Spanish-English dual language learner (DLL) toddlers in the United States. Of interest is the development of early sentences as children move from producing single words to producing multiword utterances. This study is the first to extend sentence diversity to the context of Spanish-English DLLs by describing development from 24 to 30 months of age in children with and without language delays (LDs). METHOD: Spontaneous language samples were collected from Spanish-dominant DLL children and their mothers as they were observed during a free-play interaction. Existing sentence diversity protocols were adapted for the DLL context to describe children's flexibility in combining subjects and verbs to form utterances in Spanish and English. RESULTS: Children maintained an accurate separation in their grammars for subject-verb combinations in Spanish versus English. There was an overwhelming preference for Spanish subject-verb combinations with null subjects. The emergence of sentence diversity distinguished children with and without early LD unlike the emergence of word combinations. CONCLUSIONS: Consistent with prior research, findings showed that DLLs did not confuse grammatical structures across languages. Instead, they showed a differential pattern of results in each language, such that the strongest grammatical skills were evinced first in the dominant language. Sentence diversity shows promise for assessment and progress monitoring in Spanish-English DLLs in the United States.

Psychometric Properties of the English-Spanish Vocabulary Inventory in Toddlers With and Without Early Language Delay.

PURPOSE: Despite the increasing population of dual language learners (DLLs) in the United States, vocabulary measures for young DLLs have largely relied on instruments developed for monolinguals. The multistudy project reports on the psychometric properties of the English-Spanish Vocabulary Inventory (ESVI), which was designed to capture unique cross-language measures of lexical knowledge that are critical for assessing DLLs' vocabulary, including translation equivalents (whether the child knows the words for the same concept in each language), total vocabulary (the number of words known across both languages), and conceptual vocabulary (the number of words known that represent unique concepts in either language). METHOD: Three studies included 87 Spanish-English DLLs (M age = 26.58 months, SD = 2.86 months) with and without language delay from two geographic regions. Multiple measures (e.g., caregiver report, observation, behavioral tasks, and standardized assessments) determined content validity, construct validity, social validity, and criterion validity of the ESVI. RESULTS: Monolingual instruments used in bilingual contexts significantly undercounted lexical knowledge as measured on the ESVI. Scores on the ESVI were related to performance on other measures of communication, indicating acceptable content, construct, and criterion validity. Social validity ratings were similarly positive. ESVI scores were also associated with suspected language delay. CONCLUSIONS: These studies provide initial evidence of the adequacy of the ESVI for use in research and clinical contexts with young children learning English and Spanish (with or without a language delay). Developing tools such as the ESVI promotes culturally and linguistically responsive practices that support accurate assessment of DLLs' lexical development. SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL: https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.17704391.

Moving Through the Pipeline: Ethnic and Linguistic Disparities in Special Education from Birth Through Age Five.

This study examined Oregon's early intervention (EI) and early childhood special education (ECSE) pipelines as a function of children's intersecting ethnicity and home language(s) with a focus on children from Latino/a backgrounds with communication disorders. We found differences in children's referral source and age of referral, likelihood of evaluation and placement, and type of placement for conditions related to communication, including autism spectrum disorder and hearing impairment. Results showed differences in EI and ECSE; however, disproportionality appeared greatest among Spanish-speaking Latino/a children and non-Latino/a children who spoke languages other than English compared to non-Latino/a English-speaking counterparts. Our findings suggest attending to children's intersecting ethnicity and language backgrounds in referral, evaluation, and placement add nuance to examinations of disproportionality. Results also indicate that practices related to characterizing children's communication disorders likely make substantial contributions to inequities in EI and ECSE. Precise identification of differences in service provision can lead to targeted policy and practice solutions to reduce structural barriers to care in EI/ECSE systems and improve equity, particularly as related to placement for children of color with communication concerns.

Serving young children with communication disabilities from Latinx backgrounds and their families with equity: Provider perspectives.

INTRODUCTION: Latinx children with communication disorders from birth to age 5 and their families are increasingly served in United States (US) educational and medical settings where longstanding structural barriers threaten their access to equitable assessment and intervention. However, little is known about providers' perceptions serving this highly diverse population as they relate to reducing disparities in care for communication disorders. METHODS: This exploratory qualitative study interviewed 24 speech-language pathologists (SLPs) and early intervention (EI)/early childhood special education (ECSE) developmental specialists serving young Latinx children with communication disorders to offer targeted recommendations toward improving equity. The semi-structured interview included questions regarding communication assessment, diagnostics/eligibility, intervention, interpretation, translation, and solutions to enhance EI/ECSE. Interviews were coded with content analysis using elements of grounded theory, and responses from SLPs in medical versus education settings and from EI/ECSE developmental specialists were compared. Data triangulation was used to validate themes. RESULTS: Analysis revealed the following themes related to provider challenges and resources: family factors, provider factors, cultural and linguistic differences, assessment approaches, eligibility determinations, translation and interpretation, and institutional factors. Few variations in themes between provider types (SLPs vs. EI/ECSE developmental specialists) and settings (medical vs. educational) were found. Providers also offered several policy and practice solutions. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest minimal advances in improving equity for young Latinx children with communication disorders over prior decades. Results also indicate that providers may benefit from reflecting on their cultures and biases as well as systemic racism within EI/ECSE.

Media exposure and language experience: Examining associations from home observations in Mexican immigrant families in the US.

The current exploratory study describes exposure to digital media in young children from Mexican immigrant homes and its association with language input and output. Using multiple recordings of children's home environments, we report on the rate (i.e., percentage of total recording time), language (Spanish or English), and type (adult- or child-directed programming) of auditory media exposure in toddlers under three years of age (N = 30; Mage = 20;3 months). We also examine total adult words and adult-child conversational turns, as indicators of child language input, and the number of child language vocalizations as a measure of early language development. Findings showed that digital media comprised approximately 14 % of the child language environment that families selected to record, with wide variability observed. Children were more likely to be exposed to media in Spanish than English and adult-directed than child-directed programming. Children's general media exposure was negatively associated with the amount of children's vocalizations and conversational turns but not the quantity of adult words in the environment, suggesting that the relation between media exposure and child language development is likely not mediated by a general decrease in adult input in Mexican immigrant homes. Instead, media exposure may decrease opportunities for children to engage in conversation and practice language expression, both critical mechanisms for successful language acquisition. Selection of child-directed programming may encourage child vocalizations but is less likely to be in Spanish in these homes, which may reduce opportunities for engagement with Spanish-dominant adults. Together these findings provide a window into the nature of media exposure in children from Mexican immigrant homes and into the associations between media and language input and output. Directions for future research are discussed.

Cultural and Linguistic Adaptations of Early Language Interventions: Recommendations for Advancing Research and Practice.

Purpose Speech-language pathologists are responsible for providing culturally and linguistically responsive early language intervention services for legal, ethical, and economic reasons. Yet, speech-language pathologists face challenges in meeting this directive when children are from racial, ethnic, or linguistic backgrounds that differ from their own. Guidance is needed to support adaptation of evidence-based interventions to account for children's home culture(s) and language(s). This review article (a) describes a systematic review of the adaptation processes applied in early language interventions delivered to culturally and linguistically diverse populations in the current literature and (b) offers a robust example of an adaptation of an early language intervention for families of Spanish-speaking Mexican immigrant origin. Method Thirty-three studies of early language interventions adapted for culturally and linguistically diverse children ages 6 years and younger were reviewed. Codes were applied to describe to what extent studies document the purpose of the adaptation, the adaptation process, the adapted components, and the evaluation of the adapted intervention. Results Most studies specified the purpose of adaptations to the intervention evaluation, content, or delivery, which typically addressed children's language(s) but not culture. Study authors provided limited information about who made the adaptations, how, and when. Few studies detailed translation processes or included pilot testing. Only one used a comprehensive framework to guide adaptation. A case study extensively documents the adaptation process of the Language and Play Every Day en español program. Conclusions Future early language intervention adaptations should focus on both linguistic and cultural factors and include detailed descriptions of intervention development, evaluation, and replication. The case study presented here may serve as an example. Increased access to such information can support research on early language interventions for diverse populations and, ultimately, responsive service provision.

Code-Switching and Language Proficiency in Bilingual Children With and Without Developmental Language Disorder.

Purpose This study examined the frequency of code-switching by Spanish-English-speaking children as a function of language proficiency in each language and diagnosis (developmental language disorder [DLD] or typical language development [TLD]). Method Sixty-two Spanish-English-speaking children, 5-7 years of age, participated in this study (24 with DLD and 38 with TLD). Language samples were used to determine the level of language proficiency in each language as a continuum of performance. Correlational analyses were conducted to evaluate the relationship between Spanish and English language proficiency and the frequency of code-switching considering the total number of code-switched words, intrasentential code-switching (i.e., number of sentences/C-units with code-switched parts), and intersentential code-switching (i.e., code-switched sentences/C-units). Negative binomial and zero-inflated Poisson regressions were conducted to evaluate whether the frequency of code-switched words, code-switched parts, and code-switched sentences is different across children with DLD and their peers with TLD, controlling for Spanish and English proficiency. Results When Spanish was the target language, lower proficiency in Spanish was associated with higher frequency of code-switches to English for the group with DLD, but not for their peers with TLD who code-switched to English regardless of their Spanish and English proficiency. There were no statistically significant effects of diagnosis on the frequency of code-switches. Conclusion Results indicate that code-switching occurs similarly across children with DLD and their peers with TLD; therefore, the frequency and type of code-switches should not be used as an indicator of DLD.

Exploring the Cultural Validity of Parent-Implemented Naturalistic Language Intervention Procedures for Families From Spanish-Speaking Latinx Homes.

Purpose This study addressed the cultural, linguistic, and contextual validity of parent-implemented naturalistic language interventions for young children from Latinx homes. Parents' perspectives on the acceptability of commonly delivered intervention procedures were explored. Method Thirty-seven parents from Spanish-speaking Latinx backgrounds with children under the age of 6 years participated. Four focus groups were completed. Parents responded to 14 procedures regarding the intervention implementers, settings, activities, strategies, and language. Structural and emergent coding was used to explore procedural acceptability and parents' rationales for perceiving each procedure as acceptable, not acceptable, or neutral. Results Substantial intracultural variability in parents' acceptance of specific procedures and the reasons for their perspectives was observed. Parents' perspectives evinced both individualist and collectivist orientations toward child language development. Several suggestions regarding promising adaptations for early language interventions that may overlap with evidence-based parent-implemented naturalistic language intervention procedures emerged. Conclusion The findings highlight the variability within the Latinx community that is likely to impact the cultural validity of early language interventions for children and families from this background. Considerations for enhancing interventions to achieve cultural congruency and promote child outcomes are provided. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.12315713.

Adaptation of a Caregiver-Implemented Naturalistic Communication Intervention for Spanish-Speaking Families of Mexican Immigrant Descent: A Promising Start.

Purpose Caregiver-implemented naturalistic communication interventions (CI-NCIs) support the communication abilities of young children with language disorders and enhance the communication behaviors of their caregivers. Yet, few CI-NCIs have been adapted and tested for feasibility with families who speak Spanish at home. This study addresses this gap in the literature by examining the social validity and preliminary outcomes of an adapted CI-NCI program with families who identified as Mexican immigrants and spoke Spanish. Method A multiphase cultural adaptation process enhanced the Language and Play Every Day program for Spanish-speaking Mexican immigrant families in the United States. Six families, including eight caregivers and eight toddlers, participated. Caregivers received coaching on the use of language-facilitating strategies within existing home routines. Multiple measures of the social validity of the intervention's goals, procedures, and outcomes were collected. Changes in caregivers' reported confidence, knowledge, and use of language-facilitating strategies and children's receptive and expressive communication were examined to determine preliminary outcomes. Results Overall, caregivers perceived many of the intervention's goals, procedures, and outcomes as socially valid and specified aspects of the intervention needing improvement. Caregivers and children showed modest but potentially clinically meaningful gains in their communication skills following the intervention despite wide individual variability. Conclusions Given some recommendations to further adapt the intervention, this CI-NCI appears to be feasible for supporting the communication development of children of Spanish-speaking Mexican immigrant descent. Thus, future research on the efficacy of the intervention is warranted. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.12269081.

Preschool Teachers' Language and Literacy Practices with Dual Language Learners.

The purposes of this study were to (a) examine the degree to which teachers used linguistically responsive practices to support the language and literacy development of Spanish-speaking Dual Language Learners (DLL) and (b) to investigate the associations between these practices and select teacher-level factors. The sample consisted of 72 preschool teachers. Observational data were collected on practices. Teachers self-reported on language and culture beliefs, Spanish speaking ability, and classroom composition. Results indicated that teachers, including those who spoke Spanish, used few linguistically responsive practices to support preschool DLLs. Only Spanish-speaking ability was related to practices. Implications for targeted professional development are discussed.

Maternal Depressive Symptomatology, Social Support, and Language Development of Bilingual Preschoolers From Low-Income Households.

PURPOSE: This study examined the impact of maternal depressive symptomatology and social support on the English and Spanish language growth of young bilingual children from low-income backgrounds. It was hypothesized that maternal depression would slow children's development in both languages but that social support would buffer the negative effect. METHOD: Longitudinal data were collected from 83 mothers of Puerto Rican descent and their children who were attending Head Start preschool for 2 years. The effects of maternal depressive symptomatology and social support from family and friends on receptive vocabulary and oral comprehension development in both languages were examined. RESULTS: Growth curve modeling revealed that maternal depressive symptomatology negatively affected Spanish receptive vocabulary development only. Maternal depression did not affect children's English receptive vocabulary or their oral comprehension in either language. Social support was not related to maternal depressive symptomatology or child language. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that maternal depression is 1 risk factor that contributes to less robust primary language development of bilingual children from low-income households. Speech-language pathologists must (a) increase their awareness of maternal depression in order to provide families with appropriate mental health referrals and (b) consider their roles as supportive adults for children whose mothers may be depressed.

Los padres como promotores del desarrollo de lenguaje de bebés prematuros: propuesta de intervención temprana / Parents as Promoters of Language Development in Premature Babies: a Proposal for Early intervention

Resumen Objetivo: Comparar dos sistemas de puntuación para un test de fluidez verbal con el Modelo de Escalas de Calificación. Método: Se analizaron datos de 289 participantes, de los cuales 92 habían sido diagnosticados con Parkinson. Las puntuaciones se calcularon con dos sistemas de categorización: un procedimiento convencional y otro basado en percentiles. Resultados: Las puntuaciones Rasch procedentes de percentiles dan lugar a categorías adecuadas y medidas fiables; la correlación con las puntuaciones del test Minimental es evidencia de validez concurrente. Tras controlar estadísticamente el efecto de la edad, las medidas Rasch procedentes de percentiles discriminan entre ambos grupos, lo que evidencia validez predictiva. Conclusiones: El análisis de los dos procedimientos permite recomendar el uso de las categorías basadas en percentiles.

Abstract Objective: Two scoring systems for a verbal fluency test were compared using the Rasch Rating Scale Model. Method: The analysis was carried out on 289 participants, 92 of whom had had a Parkinson's disease diagnosis. Scores were calculated with two different category systems: a conventional procedure and a percentile-based one. Results: The percentile-based Rasch scores produce adequate categories and reliable measures, while the correlation with the Mini Mental State Examination evinces concurrent validity. After statistically controlling for age, percentile-based Rasch measures discriminated between both groups, demonstrating predictive validity. Conclusions: The analysis of the two procedures allows for the recommendation of the use of percentile-based categories.

Programa de educación para padres sobre estimulación del desarrollo del lenguaje de lactantes prematuros con riesgo de daño cerebral / Parent education programme on stimulation of language development in preterm infants at risk of brain damage

Introducción: La interacción temprana madre-hijo es crítica para el desarrollo adecuado del lactante; sin embargo, la interacción de los padres con los lactantes prematuros presenta una dificultad particular por las circunstancias que acompañan un nacimiento prematuro, como son los factores de riesgo de daño cerebral, y la necesidad de estimulación temprana tanto motora como cognitiva que demandan estos bebés. Se ha observado que los programas educativos tienen efectos positivos en los padres de lactantes prematuros ya que mejoran los resultados de sus hijos en evaluaciones motrices, cognitivas y del lenguaje. Método: En este trabajo se examina el efecto de un programa de educación para padres para estimular el desarrollo de las habilidades comunicativas de los lactantes prematuros. Se examinó cómo cambió la interacción padres-hijo después del programa de intervención. Adicionalmente, se compararon los resultados de las evaluaciones de lenguaje de los niños, hijos de los padres que participaron en el programa de intervención comparados con niños pares, hijos de padres que no participaron en dicho programa. Resultados: El programa contribuyó a cambiar la interacción de los padres con los lactantes y a mejorar los puntajes en las evaluaciones posteriores del lenguaje de sus hijos. Conclusión: Se recomienda la participación de los padres de niños prematuros en programas de educación para padres para estimular el desarrollo del lenguaje de sus hijos

Introduction: Early mother-child interaction is critical for proper infant development; however, the interaction of parents with preterm infants presents a particular difficulty due to the circumstances that accompany premature birth, such as risk factors for brain damage and the early motor and cognitive stimulation that these infants demand. It has been observed that educational programmes have positive effects on the parents of preterm infants as they improve the outcomes of their children in motor, cognitive and language assessments. Method: This paper examines the effect of a parent education programme designed to stimulate the development of the early communicative skills of preterm infants. We examined how the parent-child interaction changed following the intervention programme. In addition, the results of the language evaluations of the children whose parents participated in the intervention programme and those whose parents did not participate were compared. Results: The programme helped to change the interaction of parents with their infants and to improve scores in the children's subsequent language assessments. Conclusion: Parents of premature children are encouraged to participate in parent education programmes to encourage the development of their child's language abilities