A novel and selective sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitor, tofogliflozin, improves glycaemic control and lowers body weight in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

AIM: To assess the efficacy, safety and tolerability of different doses of tofogliflozin, a novel, highly selective sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor, in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). METHODS: In a 12-week, multicentre, multinational, randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, placebo-controlled, dose-finding study, patients with inadequate glycaemic control from diet and exercise alone, or from diet and exercise plus a stable dose of metformin, were randomized to one of five doses of tofogliflozin (2.5, 5, 10, 20, or 40 mg) or placebo. The primary efficacy endpoint was absolute change at week 12 from baseline in glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c), minus the change in the placebo group. RESULTS: Statistically significant dose-dependent reductions in HbA1c were shown in all treated groups except the 2.5-mg dose group, with a maximum reduction of 0.56% (placebo-subtracted) at the 40-mg dose, along with increased urinary glucose excretion. Metformin treatment had no substantial influence on tofogliflozin efficacy. Dose-dependent reductions in fasting plasma glucose and body weight were observed, and glucose intolerance was improved, with a trend towards blood pressure reduction. Slight increases were observed for mean ketone bodies with no abnormal change in ketone body ratio. No deaths or treatment-related serious adverse events were reported. The incidence of adverse events was similar in the placebo (37.9%) to that in the tofogliflozin group (35.9-46.3%). Withdrawal because of adverse events was rare (≤2 patients per treatment group), with similar rates of withdrawal in the placebo and tofogliflozin groups. CONCLUSIONS: A once-daily dose of tofogliflozin for 12 weeks was an effective, safe and well-tolerated treatment for T2DM.

Efficacy of mitemcinal, a motilin agonist, on gastrointestinal symptoms in patients with symptoms suggesting diabetic gastropathy: a randomized, multi-center, placebo-controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Mitemcinal, an oral motilin agonist, accelerates gastric emptying. AIM: To investigate if mitemcinal was superior to placebo in relief of symptoms attributed to gastroparesis. METHODS: In a randomized, double-blind design, 392 insulin-requiring diabetics with symptoms attributable to gastroparesis were treated for 3 months with placebo, mitemcinal 5 or 10 mg bid. On a weekly basis, patients assessed whether there was adequate relief of their gastroparesis symptoms. Patients were classified as Complete Responders (CR) if there were three consecutive positive monthly responses, which required at least 50% of their weekly responses in a month being positive. An Overall Responder (OR) had at least 75% positive weekly responses for the whole treatment period. RESULTS: Mitemcinal 10 mg produced a significantly better response rate than placebo with a 10.6% increase in the OR (P < 0.05 vs. placebo). Mitemcinal 10 mg also produced statistically significant increases in the CR and OR in the subgroup identified by baseline body mass index (<35 kg/m(2)) and haemoglobin A(1c) (<10%) (P < 0.01 vs. placebo). Adverse events did not differ from placebo frequency levels. CONCLUSIONS: Mitemcinal can induce a statistically significant response to treatment in a subset of diabetic gastroparesis where future prokinetic clinical trials should be focused.

Clinical trial: effect of mitemcinal (a motilin agonist) on gastric emptying in patients with gastroparesis - a randomized, multicentre, placebo-controlled study.

BACKGROUND: Mitemcinal is an orally active motilin agonist that could potentially improve gastric emptying. AIM: To investigate the effect of mitemcinal on gastric emptying in patients with idiopathic and diabetic gastroparesis. METHODS: In a randomized, double-blind design, 106 patients were randomized into four dosing regimens (22 to placebo and 21 each to mitemcinal 10 mg, 20 mg, 30 mg bid or 20 mg tid) for 28 days. A standardized scintigraphic gastric emptying test was performed at screening and again after completing the 4-week protocol. RESULTS: All doses of mitemcinal showed prokinetic activity. A significant improvement in meal retention at 240 min was noted even in the lowest dose group with the greatest improvement observed with 30 mg bid group (75% vs. 10% in placebo group). Diabetic patients responded better than the idiopathic subgroup. In diabetic patients, blood glucose at 1 h after a meal showed dose-dependent elevation. Although gastroparetic symptoms improved with both mitemcinal and placebo, the prominent placebo effect was not statistically exceeded by mitemcinal. Baseline scintigraphy results exhibited no clear correlation between the severity of gastroparetic symptoms and the status of gastric emptying. CONCLUSION: Mitemcinal is capable of accelerating gastric emptying in both diabetic and idiopathic patients with gastroparesis.

Mitemcinal (GM-611), an orally active motilin agonist, facilitates defecation in rabbits and dogs without causing loose stools.

The effects of mitemcinal (GM-611), an orally active motilin agonist, on defecation were investigated in rabbits and dogs. In normal rabbits, within 0-3 h of dosing, orally administered mitemcinal (2.5-10 mg kg(-1)) increased stool weight in a dose-dependent manner without causing loose stools. Sennoside (12-48 mg kg(-1)) also facilitated defecation within 2-9 h of oral administration, but the stools were significantly loosened. In the morphine-induced constipation model, the stool weight of morphine-treated rabbits (1 mg kg(-1)) was only 37.5% of that of untreated animals. Mitemcinal (0.5-20 mg kg(-1)) dose-dependently increased stool weight without increasing stool water content. At the highest dose of mitemcinal, stool weight recovered to 83.9% of that of untreated animals. In normal dogs, mitemcinal (0.3-3 mg kg(-1)) reduced the time to first bowel movement after oral administration without inducing diarrhoea at any dose. These results indicate that mitemcinal facilitates defecation without inducing severe diarrhoea. It is suggested that mitemcinal may be a novel therapeutic agent for constipation that enables easier control of the timing of defecation because of the early onset and short duration of its action, compared with sennoside.

Reduced response to granulocyte colony-stimulating factor in W/Wv and Sl/Sld mice.

The response of W/Wv and Sl/Sld mice to recombinant granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (rG-CSF) was investigated. Purified rG-CSF was injected every day for 1 week in doses up to 1000 micrograms/kg. Both untreated Sl/Sld and W/Wv mice initially showed an ordinary number of neutrophils and then an increase in neutrophils in response to rG-CSF injections. However, the effective dose of rG-CSF was much higher than that for normal mice. An increase in splenic CFU-GM was observed in both types of mice receiving 1000 micrograms/kg of rG-CSF, regardless of the reported defects in their hemopoietic system. These results indicate that W/Wv and Sl/Sld mice show a reduced response to exogenous rG-CSF and that a large amount of exogenous rG-CSF may allow an increase in neutrophils in certain hemopoietic defects.

Inhibition of lipoprotein lipid oxidation.

According to the oxidative modification hypothesis, antioxidants that inhibit the oxidation of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) are expected to attenuate atherosclerosis, yet not all antioxidants that inhibit LDL oxidation in vitro inhibit disease in animal models of atherosclerosis. As with animal studies, a benefit with dietary supplements of antioxidants in general and vitamin E in particular was anticipated in humans, yet the overall outcome of large, randomized controlled studies has been disappointing. However, in recent years it has become clear that the role of vitamin E in LDL oxidation and the relationship between in vitro and in vivo inhibition of LDL oxidation are more complex than previously appreciated, and that oxidative events in addition to LDL oxidation in the extracellular space need to be considered in the context of an antioxidant as a therapeutic drug against atherosclerosis. This review focuses on some of these complexities, proposes a novel method to assess in vitro 'oxidizability' of lipoprotein lipids, and summarizes the present situation of development of antioxidant compounds as drugs against atherosclerosis and related cardiovascular disorders.

Anti-oxidative profile of lobenzarit disodium (CCA).

The effects of lobenzarit disodium (CCA) on various species of activated oxygen were investigated in chemiluminescence experiments. CCA showed a quenching effect against hydroxyl radicals generated by Fenton reaction. The inhibition of CCA was much more intense than that of mefenamic acid which is an anti-inflammatory drug and an analogous compound to CCA. CCA also showed a quenching effect against singlet oxygen generated in enzymatic systems. However, CCA had no effect against superoxide anion radicals generated in the xanthine oxidase-hypoxanthine system. As a model of lipid peroxidation and protein alteration induced by activated oxygen, we examined the auto-oxidation of linolenic acid and the UV irradiation of immunoglobulin G (IgG). CCA inhibited the production of lipid peroxide; however CCA did not show a direct quenching action against lipid radicals which had been previously generated. CCA also inhibited the IgG alteration induced by UV irradiation. These results indicate that CCA has anti-oxidative actions with specificity for activated oxygen species and that CCA protects against lipid and protein damage induced by activated oxygen.

Oxidized low density lipoprotein caused CNS neuron cell death.

Death induced by oxidized low density lipoproteins (oxLDL) to embryonic CNS neuronal and neuroblastoma cells was investigated. Cell damage and viability were evaluated by LDH leakage and the MTT method, respectively. Dose- and time-dependent degeneration of neurons occurred after oxLDL (1-100 microg/ml) treatment but was absent after native low density lipoproteins (LDL). This degeneration was mediated, in part, by apoptosis because increased TUNEL and Hoechst dye-positive staining was observed. These effects occurred in the absence of microglia. However, DNA degradation was not detected. The cytotoxicity was attenuated by pre-treatment with antioxidants. These results suggest that oxidation by oxLDL may be important in neurocytotoxicity in the brain.

Characterization of aggregated low density lipoproteins induced by copper-catalyzed oxidation.

Oxidation of low density lipoproteins (LDL) has been shown to lead to enhanced uptake by macrophages mediated by the scavenger receptor. In the present study, changes in LDL induced by copper-catalyzed oxidation were investigated using gel permeation chromatography (GPC), and the results were compared with several parameters of oxidized LDL (ox-LDL). When LDL at 200 micrograms/ml was oxidized with 10 microM Cu2+ at 37 degrees C for up to 24 hours, increases in thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances and electrophoretic mobility were first observed within 3 hours. An increase in fluorescence and a decrease in intact apolipoprotein B (apoB) were than observed in parallel with an increase in 125I-LDL degradation by macrophages after 6 hours. Finally, LDL aggregation separated by liquid chromatography was observed after 24 hours. The aggregated and monomeric fractions of ox-LDL were analyzed and the results compared with the monomeric fraction of native LDL. Both fractions of ox-LDL contained hardly any intact apoB and showed an intense fluorescence. The electrophoretic mobility increment of aggregated ox-LDL was almost half that of monomeric ox-LDL, yet the lysine residues of aggregated ox-LDL were more extensively decreased than those of monomeric ox-LDL. Degradation of aggregated ox-LDL by macrophages showed a slightly greater increase than that of monomeric ox-LDL. GPC analysis is a useful method to estimate the LDL aggregation, and these results provide a basis to investigate the formation of aggregated LDL.

[Effects of high fat diet and a novel antioxidant (BO653) on ischemia reperfusion injury of rat kidney].

The effect of a high fat diet (HFD) on renal function, renal mitochondrial function and intrarenal oxygen-free radial scavenging activity were examined in the ischemia-reperfusion model of the rat kidney. Whether of not a novel lipophilic antioxidant (BO653) could minimize this effect in vivo was also investigated. Thirty minutes renal ischemia was introduced by vascular clamp in rats with or without HFD (cholesterol 1.25%). Some of the HFD rats received BO653 by gastric gavage. Creatinine clearance (Ccr) was measured 24 hours following the injury. Mitochondrial oxygen consumption and thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPX) and alpha-tocopherol were measured in the kidney before, 30 min ischemia and 30 min after reperfusion. HFD significantly reduced Ccr after ischemia-reperfusion (45% decreased compared to normal diet), which was ameliorated by BO653. Thirty-minute ischemia deteriorated the mitochondrial function in the normal diet (ND) group, high fat diet (HFD) group and high fat diet + BO653 (HFD + BO) group. Thirty-minute reperfusion ameliorated the mitochondrial function in all those groups. The kidney content of TBARS was not increased after the ischemia-reperfusion in all these groups. In the HFD group, the kidney content of GPX was higher than in the ND group during ischemia-reperfusion, but in the HFD group, the kidney content of SOD was significantly decreased after the thirty-minute ischemia. Thirty-minute ischemia decreased the kidney content of alpha-tocopherol in the HFD group, which was recovered by the thirty-minute reperfusion. In conclusion, a high fat diet deteriorates ischemia-reperfusion injury of the rat kidney and BO653 ameliorated this effect judged by creatinine clearance and renal mitochondrial function. Reperfusion injury could not be confirmed in the present model based on the results of lipid peroxidation and oxygen-free radical scavenging enzyme activity.

Action of phenolic antioxidants on various active oxygen species.

The action of phenolic antioxidants, such as probucol, on various active oxygen species was investigated using luminol chemiluminescence and spin trapping with 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline-N-oxide (DMPO). The various active oxygen species, including hydroxyl radicals (Fenton reaction), superoxide anions, singlet oxygen and hypochlorite ions were examined with phenolic antioxidants under aqueous and nonaqueous conditions. Probucol showed a quenching effect on both superoxide anions and hypochlorite ions in nonaqueous solution. However, it had no effect on hydroxyl radicals. alpha-Tocopherol, a natural phenolic antioxidant, showed a stronger quenching effect on superoxide anions and hypochlorite ions than probucol, and quenched hydroxyl radicals in nonaqueous solution. Furthermore, Trolox showed a quenching effect on all active oxygen species in both aqueous and nonaqueous solution. The antioxidants were studied under comparable conditions in a series of test systems and the reactivity profiles depicted as 'radar charts' which are helpful for characterizing antioxidant action.

Oxidation-induced aggregation of rabbit low-density lipoprotein by azo initiator.

Oxidation of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) has been considered as an important step in the early pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. We investigated the oxidative modification of LDL by a water-soluble azo-initiator AAPH (2,2,-azo-bis(2-amidinopropane).2HCl) and analyzed the uptake of AAPH-oxidized LDL with mouse peritoneal macrophages. Oxidative modification of LDL by AAPH was similar to the modification induced by copper in regard to the degree of oxidation and formation of aggregated LDL. The aggregated oxidized (AO-) LDL was fractionated by gel permeation chromatography and compared with the monomeric oxidized (MO-) LDL to make clear their characterization. The results of binding, cell association, and degradation with macrophages indicated that both AO- and MO-LDL were bound and endocytosed by macrophages. The cross competition experiment showed that nonreciprocal competition existed among MO-LDL, AO-LDL, and monomeric acetylated (MAc-) LDL. By the sterol accumulation experiment in macrophages with the various types of modified LDL, the cellular sterol accumulation was shown as the following order, AO-LDL > MAc-LDL > MO-LDL. These results indicated that the oxidation by AAPH can induce the aggregation of LDL and that the AO-LDL contribute to lipid accumulation into macrophages more than the MO-LDL.

Inhibition of oxidation of low-density lipoprotein by a novel antioxidant, BO-653, prepared by theoretical design.

2,3-Dihydro-5-hydroxy-2,2-dipentyl-4,6-di-tert-butyl-benzofuran (BO-653) is a novel antioxidant synthesized by theoretical designing based on the previous experimental findings and consideration. The antioxidant activities of BO-653 against the oxidative modification of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) induced by free radicals were studied. BO-653 was consumed faster than endogenous alpha-tocopherol and inhibited the formation of lipid hydroperoxides, which was observed during the consumption of alpha-tocopherol. Doxyl stearic acids incorporated into LDL as spin probes competed with the antioxidants in scavenging radicals. It was found that the efficacy of radical scavenging by alpha-tocopherol became smaller as the radical went deeper into the interior of LDL particle, whereas that by BO-653 did not change. Ascorbic acid in the aqueous phase spared alpha-tocopherol efficiently during oxidation. On the other hand, the sparing effect of ascorbic acid for BO-653 was not remarkable, unlike that for alpha-tocopherol, which implied different locations of radicals derived from BO-653 and alpha-tocopherol within the LDL particle. It was concluded that BO-653 protected LDL from oxidative modification efficiently by scavenging peroxyl radicals and by reducing alpha-tocopheroxyl radicals and that this novel antioxidant might act as a potent inhibitor of development of atherosclerosis.

Detection of cell death of cultured mouse mesangial cells induced by oxidized low-density lipoprotein.

The objectives of the present study using cultured mouse mesangial cells (MMC) were (1) to evaluate the type of cytotoxicity induced by oxidized (ox) LDL, i.e. apoptosis, necrosis and types of other cell death and (2) to investigate the pathway of cell death under incubation with antioxidants or scavenger receptor (SR) antagonists. LDH release and a morphological examination were used in this study. Trypan blue staining of MMC was performed to detect dead cells in culture. Cytotoxicity of ox-LDL in MMC was found to be dose- and time-dependent. In the morphological study of electron microscopy, three different types of cell death in ox-LDL-treated MMC were identified. In the morphological study with semithin sections, these three types of dead cells were identified at different dosages of ox-LDL. Type 1 or type 2 dead cells were observed in low dose ox-LDL or in middle-dose ox-LDL-treated MMC, respectively. Type 3 dead cells were marked in high dose ox-LDL-treated MMC. It appears that the cells were apoptotic (type 1), necrotic (type 3) and other types (type 2). The cytotoxicity of ox-LDL was not mediated by cellular internalization of ox-LDL via SRs. On the other hand, the cytotoxicity of ox-LDL was inhibited by antioxidants such as alpha-tocopherol, probucol, N-acetyl-cysteine or glutathione ethyl ester. It is indicated that the pathways of ox-LDL induced cell death were distinct from the pathway via SRs.

Effects of recombinant human erythropoietin on anaemic W/Wv and Sl/Sld mice.

The effects of recombinant human erythropoietin (rHuEPO) on anaemic W/Wv and Sl/Sld mice were investigated. rHuEPO was injected every day for a week in doses up to 86,000 iu/kg. Wv/+ and Sld+ mice, which have genetically a weak anaemia, received 17 or 86 iu/kg of rHuEPO and showed dose-dependent increases in haemoglobin, PCV, RBC and reticulocytes to the same extent as that in normal mice. W/Wv mice also showed increases in the haematological parameters in response to 8600 iu/kg of rHuEPO but the dose was much higher than that for normal mice. A reticulocyte increase in W/Wv mice appeared later than in normal mice and was not sustained for 2 weeks even though the rHuEPO treatment was continued. Sl/Sld mice, however, did not show any significant haematological effect from doses up to 86,000 iu/kg. In both W/Wv and Sl/Sld mice receiving 8600 and 86,000 iu/kg of rHuEPO, respectively, an increase in splenic or bone marrow CFU-E was observed regardless of the defect in their haemopoietic systems. The plasma erythropoietin (EPO) level in W/Wv and Sl/Sld mice was inversely correlated with the haemoglobin, indicating that EPO production was not influenced by the haemopoietic defect and was regulated by the hypoxic properties of the anaemia. These results indicate that a large dose of exogenous rHuEPO is effective for the anaemia in W/Wv mice caused by a stem cell defect but not for the anaemia in Sl/Sld mice caused by a defective microenvironment.

2,3-Dihydro-5-hydroxy-2,2-dipentyl-4,6-di-tert-butylbenzofuran: design and evaluation as a novel radical-scavenging antioxidant against lipid peroxidation.

To develop a novel potent radical-scavenging antioxidant, the ideal structure of a phenolic compound was designed considering the factors that determine antioxidant potency. 2,3-Dihydro-5-hydroxy-2,2-dipentyl-4, 6-di-tert-butylbenzofuran (BO-653) was thus synthesized and its antioxidant activity was evaluated against lipid peroxidations in vitro. The electron spin resonance study showed that the phenoxyl radical derived from BO-653 was more stable than alpha-tocopheroxyl radical. BO-653 reduced alpha-tocopheroxyl radical rapidly, but alpha-tocopherol did not reduce the phenoxyl radical derived from BO-653. However, the chemical reactivity of BO-653 toward peroxyl radical was smaller than that of alpha-tocopherol. This was interpreted as the steric effect of bulky tert-butyl groups at both ortho positions which hindered the access of peroxyl radical to the phenolic hydrogen. However, the tertbutyl substituents increased the stability of BO-653 radical and also lipophilicity, and its antioxidant potency against lipid peroxidation in phosphatidylcholine liposomal membranes was superior to that of alpha-tocopherol. Ascorbic acid reduced the phenoxyl radical derived from BO-653 and spared BO-653 during the oxidation of lipid in the homogeneous solution. On the other hand, ascorbic acid did not spare BO-653 in the oxidation of liposomal membranes. It was concluded that BO-653 is a potent novel radical-scavenging antioxidant.

Effects of recombinant human erythropoietin on haemolytic anaemia in mice.

The effects of repeated administration of recombinant human erythropoietin (rHuEPO) were investigated in mice with haemolytic anaemia. Mice with haemolytic anaemia induced by phenylhydrazine (PHZ mice) were examined as an acute model and New Zealand black mice (NZB mice) at 13 months of age were examined as a chronic model. The plasma erythropoietin (EPO) level in PHZ mice was high and showed a strong inverse correlation with the Hb in the anaemia development period. However, it was relatively low in the recovery period from anaemia. On the other hand, the plasma EPO level in NZB mice showed a simple inverse correlation with the Hb. The rHuEPO was injected every day for a week into these mice. While a high plasma EPO level was maintained in PHZ mice, no significant effect was observed by injection with rHuEPO at dose of 600 IU/kg. However, in the recovery period from anaemia, RBC and haemoglobin in PHZ mice were increased by the rHuEPO treatment and recovered more quickly to their normal levels. In NZB mice, RBC and haemoglobin were also increased by treatment with rHuEPO at dose of 600 IU/kg. Anti-RBC autoantibodies and anti-EPO antibodies did not increase, while RBC and plasma EPO levels were increased by the rHuEPO treatment. These results suggest that some types of haemolytic anaemia are not always combined with high endogenous EPO levels and that exogenous rHuEPO may be effective for use in the treatment of haemolytic anaemia.

Antiatherogenic effects of the antioxidant BO-653 in three different animal models.

Antioxidants have been proposed to have antiatherogenic potential by their inhibition of low density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation. Here, we report an antioxidant, BO-653 (2,3-dihydro-5-hydroxy-2, 2-dipentyl-4,6-di-tert-butylbenzofuran), designed to exhibit antioxidative potency comparable to that of alpha-tocopherol, but yet possess a high degree of lipophilicity comparable to that of probucol. BO-653 exhibits a high affinity for LDL and is well distributed in aortic vessels in vivo. In atherosclerosis models of rabbits and mice, BO-653 has been shown to be able to suppress the formation of atherosclerotic lesions without untoward side effects. Specifically, there was no reduction of high density lipoprotein levels. This antioxidant provides additional evidence in support of the oxidized-LDL hypothesis, and itself is a promising candidate antioxidant for clinical use.

A role for macrophage scavenger receptors in atherosclerosis and susceptibility to infection.

Macrophage type-I and type-II class-A scavenger receptors (MSR-A) are implicated in the pathological deposition of cholesterol during atherogenesis as a result of receptor-mediated uptake of modified low-density lipoproteins (mLDL). MSR-A can bind an extraordinarily wide range of ligands, including bacterial pathogens, and also mediates cation-independent macrophage adhesion in vitro. Here we show that targeted disruption of the MSR-A gene in mice results in a reduction in the size of atherosclerotic lesions in an animal deficient in apolipoprotein E. Macrophages from MSR-A-deficient mice show a marked decrease in mLDL uptake in vitro, whereas mLDL clearance from plasma occurs at a normal rate, indicating that there may be alternative mechanisms for removing mLDL from the circulation. In addition, MSR-A-knockout mice show an increased susceptibility to infection with Listeria monocytogenes or herpes simplex virus type-1, indicating that MSR-A may play a part in host defence against pathogens.