A novel nociceptor signaling pathway revealed in protein kinase C epsilon mutant mice.

There is great interest in discovering new targets for pain therapy since current methods of analgesia are often only partially successful. Although protein kinase C (PKC) enhances nociceptor function, it is not known which PKC isozymes contribute. Here, we show that epinephrine-induced mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia and acetic acid-associated hyperalgesia are markedly attenuated in PKCepsilon mutant mice, but baseline nociceptive thresholds are normal. Moreover, epinephrine-, carrageenan-, and nerve growth factor- (NGF-) induced hyperalgesia in normal rats, and epinephrine-induced enhancement of tetrodotoxin-resistant Na+ current (TTX-R I(Na)) in cultured rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons, are inhibited by a PKCepsilon-selective inhibitor peptide. Our findings indicate that PKCepsilon regulates nociceptor function and suggest that PKCepsilon inhibitors could prove useful in the treatment of pain.

PKCε phosphorylates α4ß2 nicotinic ACh receptors and promotes recovery from desensitization.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Nicotinic (ACh) receptor recovery from desensitization is modulated by PKC, but the PKC isozymes and the phosphorylation sites involved have not been identified. We investigated whether PKCε phosphorylation of α4ß2 nAChRs regulates receptor recovery from desensitization. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Receptor recovery from desensitization was investigated by electrophysiological characterization of human α4ß2 nAChRs. Phosphorylation of the α4 nAChR subunit was assessed by immunoblotting of mouse synaptosomes. Hypothermia induced by sazetidine-A and nicotine was measured in Prkce(-/-) and wild-type mice. KEY RESULTS: Inhibiting PKCε impaired the magnitude of α4ß2 nAChR recovery from desensitization. We identified five putative PKCε phosphorylation sites in the large intracellular loop of the α4 subunit, and mutating four sites to alanines also impaired recovery from desensitization. α4 nAChR subunit phosphorylation was reduced in synaptosomes from Prkce(-/-) mice. Sazetidine-A-induced hypothermia, which is mediated by α4ß2 nAChR desensitization, was more severe and prolonged in Prkce(-/-) than in wild-type mice. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: PKCε phosphorylates the α4 nAChR subunit and regulates recovery from receptor desensitization. This study illustrates the importance of phosphorylation in regulating α4ß2 receptor function, and suggests that reducing phosphorylation prolongs receptor desensitization and decreases the number of receptors available for activation.

Energy-driven uptake of N-methyl-4-phenylpyridine by brain mitochondria mediates the neurotoxicity of MPTP.

The oxidation of NAD+-linked substrates by rat brain mitochondria is completely inhibited by pre-incubation with 0.5 mM N-methyl-4-phenylpyridine (MPP+). The effect is dependent on the integrity of the mitochondria because far higher concentrations of MPP+ are required to inhibit NADH oxidation in inverted mitochondria or isolated inner membrane preparations. The reason for this difference in behavior has been traced to a novel system for the uptake of MPP+ into mitochondria against a concentration gradient. The uptake system is energized by the transmembrane potential, as shown by the fact that valinomycin plus K+, which collapses this gradient, abolishes MPP+ uptake, while agents which collapse the proton gradient have no effect on the process. If an uncoupler is added to mitochondria preloaded with MPP+, efflux of the latter occurs with the concentration gradient. The uptake system has been studied in liver, whole brain, cortex, and midbrain preparations from rats. It may be readily distinguished from the synaptic dopamine reuptake system, since the former is blocked by uncouplers and respiratory inhibitors, but not by dopamine or mazindol, whereas the synaptic system is blocked by mazindol and competitively inhibited by dopamine but is not affected by respiratory inhibitors or uncouplers. Energy-driven uptake of MPP+ by brain mitochondria may be a crucial step in the complex sequence of events leading to the neurotoxic actions of its precursor, MPTP.

Overexpression of epsilon-protein kinase C enhances nerve growth factor-induced phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases and neurite outgrowth.

Protein kinase C (PKC) activation enhances neurite outgrowth in several cell lines and primary neurons. The PKC isozymes that mediate this response are unknown. One clue to their identity has come from studies using PC12 cells treated with ethanol. In these cells, ethanol increases levels of delta-PKC and epsilon-PKC and markedly enhances nerve growth factor (NGF)-induced neurite outgrowth and activation of mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases by a PKC-dependent mechanism. Since these findings suggest that delta-PKC or epsilon-PKC can promote neural differentiation, we studied neurite outgrowth in stably transfected PC12 cell lines that overexpress these isozymes. Overexpression of epsilon-PKC markedly increased NGF-induced neurite outgrowth. This effect was blocked by down-regulating PKC or by treating cells with the PKC inhibitor GF 109203X. In addition, overexpression of epsilon-PKC enhanced NGF-induced phosphorylation of MAP kinases. In contrast, overexpression of delta-PKC did not alter responses to NGF. These results demonstrate that epsilon-PKC promotes NGF-induced neurite outgrowth by enhancing NGF signal transduction. These findings suggest a role for epsilon-PKC in neural differentiation and plasticity.

Inhibition of mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase by pyridine derivatives and its possible relation to experimental and idiopathic parkinsonism.

4-Phenyl-N-methylpyridinium (MPP+), the oxidation product of the neurotoxic amine MPTP, is considerably more inhibitory to the oxidation of NAD+-linked substrates in intact mitochondria in State 3 than is 4-phenylpyridine. On adding uncouplers, the inhibition by MPP+ progressively diminishes, while the effect of 4-phenylpyridine remains. This is in accord with the fact that MPP+ is rapidly concentrated in the mitochondria by an energy-dependent process, while 4-phenylpyridine seems to enter passively with the concentration gradient. Collapse of the electrical gradient after addition of uncouplers thus leaves the inhibition by 4-phenylpyridine unaffected but causes efflux of MPP+ from the mitochondria and a reversal of its inhibitory action. In isolated inner membranes the inhibition of NADH oxidation via the respiratory chain by 4-phenylpyridine is much greater than by MPP+. MPTP and 4-phenyl-N-methylpyridinone also inhibit more than MPP+, whereas N-methylpyridinium has relatively little effect. The block is not at the point of entry of electrons into the flavoprotein since the NADH-ferricyanide activity is not inhibited by MPP+ at Vmax.

Ethanol regulates calcium channel subunits by protein kinase C delta -dependent and -independent mechanisms.

Chronic exposure to ethanol increases the number of functional L-type voltage-gated calcium channels in neural cells. In PC12 cells, this adaptive response is mediated by protein kinase C delta (PKCdelta), but the mechanisms by which this occurs are not known. Since expression of several different calcium channel subunits can increase the abundance of functional L-type channels, we sought to identify which subunits are regulated by ethanol. Incubation of PC12 cells with 120-150 mm ethanol for 6 days increased levels of alpha(1C), alpha(2), and beta(1b) subunit immunoreactivity in cell membranes and selectively increased the abundance of mRNA encoding the alpha(1C-1) splice variant of alpha(1C). In cells expressing a fragment of PKCdelta (deltaV1) that selectively inhibits PKCdelta, there was no increase in membrane-associated alpha(1C), alpha(2), and beta(1b) immunoreactivity following chronic ethanol exposure. However, ethanol still increased levels of alpha(1C-1) mRNA in these cells. These results indicate that ethanol increases the abundance of L-type channels by at least two mechanisms; one involves increases in mRNA encoding a splice variant of alpha(1C) and the other is post-transcriptional, rate-limiting, and requires PKCdelta.

Protein kinase Cdelta mediates ethanol-induced up-regulation of L-type calcium channels.

Brief ethanol exposure inhibits L-type, voltage-gated calcium channels in neural cells, whereas chronic exposure increases the number of functional channels. In PC12 cells, this adaptive response is mediated by protein kinase C (PKC), but the PKC isozyme responsible is unknown. Since chronic ethanol exposure increases expression of PKCdelta and PKCepsilon, we investigated the role these isozymes play in up-regulation of L-type channels by ethanol. Incubation with the PKC inhibitor GF 109203X or expression of a PKCdelta fragment that inhibits phorbol ester-induced PKCdelta translocation largely prevented ethanol-induced increases in dihydropyridine binding and K+-stimulated 45Ca2+ uptake. A corresponding PKCepsilon fragment had no effect on this response. These findings indicate that PKCdelta mediates up-regulation of L-type channels by ethanol. Remaining responses to ethanol in cells expressing the PKCdelta fragment were not inhibited by GF 109203X, indicating that PKCdelta-independent mechanisms also contribute. PKCdelta overexpression increased binding sites for dihydropyridine and L-channel antagonists, but did not increase K+-stimulated 45Ca2+ uptake, possibly because of homeostatic responses that maintain base-line levels of channel function. Since L-type channels modulate drinking behavior and contribute to neuronal hyperexcitability during alcohol withdrawal, these findings suggest an important role for PKCdelta in alcohol consumption and dependence.

An inhibitory fragment derived from protein kinase Cepsilon prevents enhancement of nerve growth factor responses by ethanol and phorbol esters.

We have studied nerve growth factor (NGF)-induced differentiation of PC12 cells to identify PKC isozymes important for neuronal differentiation. Previous work showed that tumor-promoting phorbol esters and ethanol enhance NGF-induced mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase activation and neurite outgrowth by a PKC-dependent mechanism. Ethanol also increases expression of PKCdelta and PKCepsilon, suggesting that one these isozymes regulates responses to NGF. To examine this possibility, we established PC12 cell lines that express a fragment encoding the first variable domain of PKCepsilon (amino acids 2-144), which acts as an isozyme-specific inhibitor of PKCepsilon in cardiac myocytes. Phorbol ester-stimulated translocation of PKCepsilon was markedly reduced in these PC12 cell lines. In addition, phorbol ester and ethanol did not enhance NGF-induced MAP kinase activation or neurite outgrowth in these cells. In contrast, phorbol ester and ethanol increased neurite outgrowth and MAP kinase phosphorylation in cells expressing a fragment derived from the first variable domain of PKCdelta. These results demonstrate that PKCepsilon mediates enhancement of NGF-induced signaling and neurite outgrowth by phorbol esters and ethanol in PC12 cells.

The development of sequence-tagged sites for human chromosome 4.

As part of our efforts to construct a high-resolution physical map of human chromosome 4, we developed a systematic approach for efficiently generating large numbers of chromosome-specific sequence-tagged sites (STSs). In this paper, we describe how rate-limiting steps in our STS development were identified and overcome, and detail our current development strategy. We present information for 822 new human chromosome 4-specific STSs, including PCR amplification conditions and subchromosomal localization data, obtained by analysis of the STS with somatic cell hybrids containing different portions of human chromosome 4. Although most STSs presented here were developed from anonymous clones whose sequences were determined in this laboratory, several STSs were developed for genes and other DNA sequences that were previously mapped to chromosome 4. Our data indicate that the availability of DNA sequence for an STS locus, in addition to the sequences of the two PCR oligonucleotides, significantly increases the transfer of that STS by allowing investigators to select new oligonucleotides best suited to the standard conditions used in their laboratories.