Base-Directed Photoredox Activation of C-H Bonds by PCET.

Photoredox catalysis using proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) has emerged as a powerful method for bond transformations. We previously employed traditional chemical oxidants to achieve multiple-site concerted proton-electron transfer (MS-CPET) activation of a C-H bond in a proof-of-concept fluorenyl-benzoate substrate. As described here, photoredox oxidation of the fluorenyl-benzoate follows the same rate constant vs driving force trend determined for thermal MS-CPET. Analogous photoredox catalysis enables C-H activation and H/D exchange in a number of additional substrates with favorably positioned bases. Mechanistic studies support our hypothesis that MS-CPET is a viable pathway for bond activation for substrates in which the C-H bond is weak, while stepwise carboxylate oxidation and hydrogen atom transfer likely predominate for stronger C-H bonds.

Transition State Asymmetry in C-H Bond Cleavage by Proton-Coupled Electron Transfer.

The selective transformation of C-H bonds is a longstanding challenge in modern chemistry. A recent report details C-H oxidation via multiple-site concerted proton-electron transfer (MS-CPET), where the proton and electron in the C-H bond are transferred to separate sites. Reactivity at a specific C-H bond was achieved by appropriate positioning of an internal benzoate base. Here, we extend that report to reactions of a series of molecules with differently substituted fluorenyl-benzoates and varying outer-sphere oxidants. These results probe the fundamental rate versus driving force relationships in this MS-CPET reaction at carbon by separately modulating the driving force for the proton and electron transfer components. The rate constants depend strongly on the pKa of the internal base, but depend much less on the nature of the outer-sphere oxidant. These observations suggest that the transition states for these reactions are imbalanced. Density functional theory (DFT) was used to generate an internal reaction coordinate, which qualitatively reproduced the experimental observation of a transition state imbalance. Thus, in this system, homolytic C-H bond cleavage involves concerted but asynchronous transfer of the H+ and e-. The nature of this transfer has implications for synthetic methodology and biological systems.

A Continuum of Proton-Coupled Electron Transfer Reactivity.

Proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) covers a wide range of reactions involving the transfer(s) of electrons and protons. The best-known PCET reaction, hydrogen atom transfer (HAT), has been studied in detail for more than a century. HAT is generally described as the concerted transfer of a hydrogen atom (H• ≡ H+ + e-) from one group to another, Y + H-X → Y-H + X, but a strict definition of HAT has been difficult to establish. Distinctions are more challenging when the transfer of "H•" involves e- and H+ that transfer to/from spatially distinct sites or even completely separate reagents (multiple-site concerted proton-electron transfer, MS-CPET). MS-CPET reactivity is increasingly proposed in biological and synthetic contexts, and some reactions typically described as HAT more resemble MS-CPET. Despite that HAT and MS-CPET reactions "look different," we argue here that these reactions lie on a reactivity continuum, and that they are governed by many of the same key parameters. This Account walks the reader across this PCET reactivity continuum, using a series of studies to show the strong similarities of reactions that move protons and electrons in seemingly different ways. To prepare for our stroll, we describe the thermochemical and kinetic frameworks for HAT and MS-CPET. The driving force for a solution HAT reaction is most easily discussed as the difference in the bond dissociation free energies (BDFEs) of the reactants and products. BDFEs can be analyzed as sums of electron and proton transfer steps and can therefore be obtained from p Ka and E° values. Even though MS-CPET reactions do not make and break H-X bonds in the same way as HAT, the same thermochemical description can be used with the introduction of an effective BDFE (BDFEeff). The BDFEeff of a reductant/acid pair is the free energy of that pair to form H•, which can be obtained from p Ka and E° values in an analogous fashion to a standard BDFE. When the PCET thermochemistry is known, HAT and PCET rate constants can be understood and often predicted using linear free energy relationships (the Brønsted catalysis law) and Marcus theory type approaches. After this background, we walk the reader through a continuum of PCET reactivity. Our journey begins with a study of metal-mediated HAT from hydrocarbon substrates to a metal-oxo complex and travels to the MS-CPET end of the reactivity spectrum, involving the transfer of H+ and e- from the hydroxylamine TEMPOH to two completely separate molecules. These examples, and those in between, are all analyzed within the same thermodynamic and kinetic framework. A description of the first examples of MS-CPET with C-H bonds uses the same framework and highlights the importance of hydrogen bonding and preorganization. The examples and analyses show that the reactions along the PCET continuum are more similar than they are different, and that attempts to divide these reactions into subcategories can obscure much of the essential chemistry. We hope that developing the many common features of these reactions will help experts and newcomers alike to explore exciting new territories in PCET reactivity.

Protonation and Proton-Coupled Electron Transfer at S-Ligated [4Fe-4S] Clusters.

Biological [Fe-S] clusters are increasingly recognized to undergo proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET), but the site of protonation, mechanism, and role for PCET remains largely unknown. Here we explore this reactivity with synthetic model clusters. Protonation of the arylthiolate-ligated [4Fe-4S] cluster [Fe4 S4 (SAr)4 ](2-) (1, SAr=S-2,4-6-(iPr)3 C6 H2 ) leads to thiol dissociation, reversibly forming [Fe4 S4 (SAr)3 L](1-) (2) and ArSH (L=solvent, and/or conjugate base). Solutions of 2+ArSH react with the nitroxyl radical TEMPO to give [Fe4 S4 (SAr)4 ](1-) (1ox ) and TEMPOH. This reaction involves PCET coupled to thiolate association and may proceed via the unobserved protonated cluster [Fe4 S4 (SAr)3 (HSAr)](1-) (1-H). Similar reactions with this and related clusters proceed comparably. An understanding of the PCET thermochemistry of this cluster system has been developed, encompassing three different redox levels and two protonation states.

Value analysis of neodymium content in shredder feed: toward enabling the feasibility of rare earth magnet recycling.

In order to facilitate the development of recycling technologies for rare earth magnets from postconsumer products, we present herein an analysis of the neodymium (Nd) content in shredder scrap. This waste stream has been chosen on the basis of current business practices for the recycling of steel, aluminum, and copper from cars and household appliances, which contain significant amounts of rare earth magnets. Using approximations based on literature data, we have calculated the average Nd content in the ferrous shredder product stream to be between 0.13 and 0.29 kg per ton of ferrous scrap. A value analysis considering rare earth metal prices between 2002 and 2013 provides values between $1.32 and $145 per ton of ferrous scrap for this material, if recoverable as pure Nd metal. Furthermore, we present an analysis of the content and value of other rare earths (Pr, Dy, Tb).

Long-term, automated stool monitoring using a novel smart toilet: A feasibility study.

BACKGROUND: Patients' report of bowel movement consistency is unreliable. We demonstrate the feasibility of long-term automated stool image data collection using a novel Smart Toilet and evaluate a deterministic computer-vision analytic approach to assess stool form according to the Bristol Stool Form Scale (BSFS). METHODS: Our smart toilet integrates a conventional toilet bowl with an engineered portal to image feces in a predetermined region of the plumbing post-flush. The smart toilet was installed in a workplace bathroom and used by six healthy volunteers. Images were annotated by three experts. A computer vision method based on deep learning segmentation and mathematically defined hand-crafted features was developed to quantify morphological attributes of stool from images. KEY RESULTS: 474 bowel movements images were recorded in total from six subjects over a mean period of 10 months. 3% of images were rated abnormal with stool consistency BSFS 2 and 4% were BSFS 6. Our image analysis algorithm leverages interpretable morphological features and achieves classification of abnormal stool form with 94% accuracy, 81% sensitivity and 95% specificity. CONCLUSIONS: Our study supports the feasibility and accuracy of long-term, non-invasive automated stool form monitoring with the novel smart toilet system which can eliminate the patient burden of tracking bowel forms.

A new strategy to efficiently cleave and form C-H bonds using proton-coupled electron transfer.

Oxidative activation and reductive formation of C-H bonds are crucial in many chemical, industrial, and biological processes. Reported here is a new strategy for these transformations, using a form of proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET): intermolecular electron transfer coupled to intramolecular proton transfer with an appropriately placed cofactor. In a fluorenyl-benzoate, the positioned carboxylate facilitates rapid cleavage of a benzylic C-H bond upon reaction with even weak 1e- oxidants, for example, decamethylferrocenium. Mechanistic studies establish that the proton and electron transfer to disparate sites in a single concerted kinetic step, via multi-site concerted proton-electron transfer. This work represents a new elementary reaction step available to C-H bonds. This strategy is extended to reductive formation of C-H bonds in two systems. Molecular design considerations and possible utility in synthetic and enzymatic systems are discussed.

Nondirected, Cu-Catalyzed sp3 C-H Aminations with Hydroxylamine-Based Amination Reagents: Catalytic and Mechanistic Studies.

This work demonstrates the use of hydroxylamine-based amination reagents RSO2NH-OAc for the nondirected, Cu-catalyzed amination of benzylic C-H bonds. The amination reagents can be prepared on a gram scale, are benchtop stable, and provide benzylic C-H amination products with up to 86% yield. Mechanistic studies of the established reactivity with toluene as substrate reveal a ligand-promoted, Cu-catalyzed mechanism proceeding through Ph-CH2(NTsOAc) as a major intermediate. Stoichiometric reactivity of Ph-CH2(NTsOAc) to produce Ph-CH2-NHTs suggests a two-cycle, radical pathway for C-H amination, in which the decomposition of the employed diimine ligands plays an important role.