Surface-normal illuminated pseudo-planar Ge-on-Si avalanche photodiodes with high gain and low noise.

Germanium-on-Silicon (Ge-on-Si) avalanche photodiodes (APDs) are of considerable interest as low intensity light detectors for emerging applications. The Ge absorption layer detects light at wavelengths up to ≈ 1600 nm with the Si acting as an avalanche medium, providing high gain with low excess avalanche noise. Such APDs are typically used in waveguide configurations as growing a sufficiently thick Ge absorbing layer is challenging. Here, we report on a new vertically illuminated pseudo-planar Ge-on-Si APD design utilizing a 2 µm thick Ge absorber and a 1.4 µm thick Si multiplication region. At a wavelength of 1550 nm, 50 µm diameter devices show a responsivity of 0.41 A/W at unity gain, a maximum avalanche gain of 101 and an excess noise factor of 3.1 at a gain of 20. This excess noise factor represents a record low noise for all configurations of Ge-on-Si APDs. These APDs can be inexpensively manufactured and have potential integration in silicon photonic platforms allowing use in a variety of applications requiring high-sensitivity detectors at wavelengths around 1550 nm.

Very low excess noise Al0.75Ga0.25As0.56Sb0.44 avalanche photodiode.

AlxGa1-xAsySb1-y grown lattice-matched to InP has attracted significant research interest as a material for low noise, high sensitivity avalanche photodiodes (APDs) due to its very dissimilar electron and hole ionization coefficients, especially at low electric fields. All work reported to date has been on Al concentrations of x = 0.85 or higher. This work demonstrates that much lower excess noise (F = 2.4) at a very high multiplication of 90 can be obtained in thick Al0.75Ga0.25As0.56Sb0.44 grown on InP substrates. This is the lowest excess noise that has been reported in any III-V APD operating at room temperature. The impact ionization coefficients for both electrons and holes are determined over a wide electric field range (up to 650 kV/cm) from avalanche multiplication measurements undertaken on complementary p-i-n and n-i-p diode structures. While these ionization coefficients can fit the experimental multiplication over three orders of magnitude, the measured excess noise is significantly lower than that expected from the ß/α ratio and the conventional local McIntyre noise theory. These results are of importance not just for the design of APDs but other high field devices, such as transistors using this material.

1550 nm InGaAs/InAlAs single photon avalanche diode at room temperature.

An InGaAs/InAlAs Single Photon Avalanche Diode was fabricated and characterized. Leakage current, dark count and photon count measurements were carried out on the devices from 260 to 290 K. Due to better temperature stability of avalanche breakdown in InAlAs, the device breakdown voltage varied by < 0.2 V over the 30 K temperature range studied, which corresponds to a temperature coefficient of breakdown voltage less than 7 mV/K. The single photon detection efficiency achieved in gated mode was 21 and 10% at 260 and 290 K, respectively. However the dark count rates were high due to excessive band-to-band tunneling current in the InAlAs avalanche region.

Anomalous excess noise behavior in thick Al0.85Ga0.15As0.56Sb0.44 avalanche photodiodes.

Al0.85Ga0.15As0.56Sb0.44 has recently attracted significant research interest as a material for 1550 nm low-noise short-wave infrared (SWIR) avalanche photodiodes (APDs) due to the very wide ratio between its electron and hole ionization coefficients. This work reports new experimental excess noise data for thick Al0.85Ga0.15As0.56Sb0.44 PIN and NIP structures, measuring low noise at significantly higher multiplication values than previously reported (F = 2.2 at M = 38). These results disagree with the classical McIntyre excess noise theory, which overestimates the expected noise based on the ionization coefficients reported for this alloy. Even the addition of 'dead space' effects cannot account for these discrepancies. The only way to explain the low excess noise observed is to conclude that the spatial probability distributions for impact ionization of electrons and holes in this material follows a Weibull-Fréchet distribution function even at relatively low electric-fields. Knowledge of the ionization coefficients alone is no longer sufficient to predict the excess noise properties of this material system and consequently the electric-field dependent electron and hole ionization probability distributions are extracted for this alloy.

Temperature dependence of gain and excess noise in InAs electron avalanche photodiodes.

Measurement and analysis of the temperature dependence of avalanche gain and excess noise in InAs electron avalanche photodiodes (eAPDs) at 77 to 250 K are reported. The avalanche gain, initiated by pure electron injection, was found to reduce with decreasing temperature. However no significant change in the excess noise was measured as the temperature was varied. For avalanche gain > 3, the InAs APDs with 3.5 µm i-region show consistently low excess noise factors between 1.45 and 1.6 at temperatures of 77 to 250 K, confirming that the eAPD characteristics are exhibited in the measured range of electric field. As the dark current drops much more rapidly than the avalanche gain and the excess noise remains very low, our results confirmed that improved signal to noise ratio can be obtained in InAs eAPDs by reducing the operating temperature. The lack of hole impact ionization, as confirmed by the very low excess noise and the exponentially rising avalanche gain, suggests that hole impact ionization enhancement due to band "resonance" does not occur in InAs APDs at the reported temperatures.

1300 nm wavelength InAs quantum dot photodetector grown on silicon.

The optical and electrical properties of InAs quantum dots epitaxially grown on a silicon substrate have been investigated to evaluate their potential as both photodiodes and avalanche photodiodes (APDs) operating at a wavelength of 1300 nm. A peak responsivity of 5 mA/W was observed at 1280 nm, with an absorption tail extending beyond 1300 nm, while the dark currents were two orders of magnitude lower than those reported for Ge on Si photodiodes. The diodes exhibited avalanche breakdown at 22 V reverse bias which is probably dominated by impact ionisation occurring in the GaAs and AlGaAs barrier layers. A red shift in the absorption peak of 61.2 meV was measured when the reverse bias was increased from 0 to 22 V, which we attributed to the quantum confined stark effect. This shift also leads to an increase in the responsivity at a fixed wavelength as the bias is increased, yielding a maximum increase in responsivity by a factor of 140 at the wavelength of 1365 nm, illustrating the potential for such a structure to be used as an optical modulator.

High speed InAs electron avalanche photodiodes overcome the conventional gain-bandwidth product limit.

High bandwidth, uncooled, Indium Arsenide (InAs) electron avalanche photodiodes (e-APDs) with unique and highly desirable characteristics are reported. The e-APDs exhibit a 3dB bandwidth of 3.5 GHz which, unlike that of conventional APDs, is shown not to reduce with increasing avalanche gain. Hence these InAs e-APDs demonstrate a characteristic of theoretically ideal electron only APDs, the absence of a gain-bandwidth product limit. This is important because gain-bandwidth products restrict the maximum exploitable gain in all conventional high bandwidth APDs. Non-limiting gain-bandwidth products up to 580 GHz have been measured on these first high bandwidth e-APDs.

Valence band engineering of GaAsBi for low noise avalanche photodiodes.

Avalanche Photodiodes (APDs) are key semiconductor components that amplify weak optical signals via the impact ionization process, but this process' stochastic nature introduces 'excess' noise, limiting the useful signal to noise ratio (or sensitivity) that is practically achievable. The APD material's electron and hole ionization coefficients (α and ß respectively) are critical parameters in this regard, with very disparate values of α and ß necessary to minimize this excess noise. Here, the analysis of thirteen complementary p-i-n/n-i-p diodes shows that alloying GaAs with ≤ 5.1 % Bi dramatically reduces ß while leaving α virtually unchanged-enabling a 2 to 100-fold enhancement of the GaAs α/ß ratio while extending the wavelength beyond 1.1 µm. Such a dramatic change in only ß is unseen in any other dilute alloy and is attributed to the Bi-induced increase of the spin-orbit splitting energy (∆so). Valence band engineering in this way offers an attractive route to enable low noise semiconductor APDs to be developed.

Demonstration of large ionization coefficient ratio in AlAs0.56Sb0.44 lattice matched to InP.

The electron and hole avalanche multiplication characteristics have been measured in bulk AlAs0.56Sb0.44 p-i-n and n-i-p homojunction diodes, lattice matched to InP, with nominal avalanche region thicknesses of ~0.6 µm, 1.0 µm and 1.5 µm. From these and data from two much thinner devices, the bulk electron and hole impact ionization coefficients (α and ß respectively), have been determined over an electric-field range from 220-1250 kV/cm for α and from 360-1250 kV/cm for ß for the first time. The α/ß ratio is found to vary from 1000 to 2 over this field range, making it the first report of a wide band-gap III-V semiconductor with ionization coefficient ratios similar to or larger than that observed in silicon.

Assessing the Nature of the Distribution of Localised States in Bulk GaAsBi.

A comprehensive assessment of the nature of the distribution of sub band-gap energy states in bulk GaAsBi is presented using power and temperature dependent photoluminescence spectroscopy. The observation of a characteristic red-blue-red shift in the peak luminescence energy indicates the presence of short-range alloy disorder in the material. A decrease in the carrier localisation energy demonstrates the strong excitation power dependence of localised state behaviour and is attributed to the filling of energy states furthest from the valence band edge. Analysis of the photoluminescence lineshape at low temperature presents strong evidence for a Gaussian distribution of localised states that extends from the valence band edge. Furthermore, a rate model is employed to understand the non-uniform thermal quenching of the photoluminescence and indicates the presence of two Gaussian-like distributions making up the density of localised states. These components are attributed to the presence of microscopic fluctuations in Bi content, due to short-range alloy disorder across the GaAsBi layer, and the formation of Bi related point defects, resulting from low temperature growth.

Bismuth incorporation and the role of ordering in GaAsBi/GaAs structures.

The structure and composition of single GaAsBi/GaAs epilayers grown by molecular beam epitaxy were investigated by optical and transmission electron microscopy techniques. Firstly, the GaAsBi layers exhibit two distinct regions and a varying Bi composition profile in the growth direction. In the lower (25 nm) region, the Bi content decays exponentially from an initial maximum value, while the upper region comprises an almost constant Bi content until the end of the layer. Secondly, despite the relatively low Bi content, CuPtB-type ordering was observed both in electron diffraction patterns and in fast Fourier transform reconstructions from high-resolution transmission electron microscopy images. The estimation of the long-range ordering parameter and the development of ordering maps by using geometrical phase algorithms indicate a direct connection between the solubility of Bi and the amount of ordering. The occurrence of both phase separation and atomic ordering has a significant effect on the optical properties of these layers. PACS: 78.55.Cr III-V semiconductors; 68.55.Nq composition and phase identification; 68.55.Ln defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc; 64.75.St phase separation and segregation in.