BACE cleavage of APP does not drive the diabetic phenotype of PLB4 mice.

BACKGROUND: Alzheimer's Disease (AD) and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM), two prevalent diseases related to ageing, often share common pathologies including increased inflammation, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and impaired metabolic homeostasis predominantly affecting different organs. Therefore, it was unexpected to find in a previous study that neuronal hBACE1 knock-in (PLB4 mouse) leads to both an AD- and T2DM- like phenotype. The complexity of this co-morbidity phenotype required a deeper systems approach to explore the age-related changes in AD and T2DM-like pathologies of the PLB4 mouse. Therefore, we here analysed key neuronal and metabolic tissues comparing associated pathologies to those of normal ageing. METHODS: Glucose tolerance, insulin sensitivity and protein turnover were assessed in 5-h fasted 3- and 8-month-old male PLB4 and wild-type mice. Western Blot and quantitative PCR were performed to determine regulation of homeostatic and metabolic pathways in insulin-stimulated brain, liver and muscle tissue. RESULTS: Neuronal hBACE1 expression caused early pathological cleavage of APP (increased monomeric Aß (mAß) levels at 3 months), in parallel with brain ER stress (increased phosphorylation of the translation regulation factor (p-eIF2α) and the chaperone binding immunoglobulin protein (BIP)). However, APP processing shifted over time (higher full-length APP and secreted APPß levels, alongside lower mAß and secreted APPα at 8 months), together with increased ER stress (phosphorylated/total inositol-requiring enzyme 1α (IRE1α)) in brain and liver. Metabolically, systemic glucose intolerance was evident from 3 months, yet metabolic signalling varied greatly between tissues and ages, and was confined to the periphery (increased muscle insulin receptors (IR), dipeptidyl-peptidase-4 (DPP4) levels, and decreased phosphorylated protein Kinase B (p-Akt), alongside increased liver DPP4 and fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21)), all of which normalised to wild-type levels at 8 months. CONCLUSION: Our data suggest that the murine nervous system is affected early by APP misprocessing as a result of hBACE1 introduction, which coincided with ER stress, but not IR changes, and was alleviated with age. Peripheral metabolic alterations occurred early and revealed tissue-specific (liver vs. muscle) adaptations in metabolic markers but did not correlate with neuronal APP processing. Compensatory vs. contributory neuronal mechanisms associated with hBACE1 expression at different ages may explain why mice intrinsically do not develop AD pathologies and may offer new insights for future interventions.

Two novel glucagon receptor antagonists prove effective therapeutic agents in high-fat-fed and obese diabetic mice.

AIMS: To examine the effect of two novel, enzymatically stable, glucagon receptor peptide antagonists, on metabolic control in two mouse models of obesity/diabetes. METHOD: The effects of twice daily i.p. administration of desHis(1)Pro(4)Glu(9)-glucagon or desHis(1)Pro(4)Glu(9)Lys(12)FA-glucagon for 10 days on metabolic control in high-fat-fed (HFF; 45% fat) and obese diabetic (ob/ob) mice were compared with saline-treated controls. RESULTS: Neither analogue altered body weight or food intake in either model over 10 days; however, treatment with each peptide restored non-fasting blood glucose towards normal control values in HFF mice. Basal glucose was also reduced (p < 0.01) in desHis(1)Pro(4)Glu(9)Lys(12)FA-glucagon treated ob/ob mice by day 10, coinciding with increases (p < 0.001) in circulating insulin. At the end of the treatment period, both analogues significantly (p < 0.05-0.01) improved oral and i.p. glucose tolerance (p < 0.05) and peripheral insulin sensitivity, increased pancreatic insulin and glucagon content (p < 0.05-0.01) and decreased (p < 0.05) cholesterol levels in HFF mice. Similarly beneficial metabolic effects on oral glucose tolerance (p < 0.01) and pancreatic insulin content (p < 0.05) were observed in ob/ob mice, especially after desHis(1)Pro(4)Glu(9)Lys(12)FA-glucagon treatment. No significant differences in circulating triglycerides or aspects of indirect calorimetry were noted between peptide treatment groups and respective control HFF and ob/ob mice. Finally, glucagon-mediated elevations of glucose and insulin were significantly (p < 0.05-0.01) annulled after 10 days of desHis(1)Pro(4)Glu(9)-glucagon or desHis(1)Pro(4)Glu(9)Lys(12)FA-glucagon treatment in both animal models. CONCLUSION: These data indicate that peptide-based glucagon receptor antagonists can reverse aspects of genetically and dietary-induced obesity-related diabetes.

Dual modulation of GIP and glucagon action by the low molecular weight compound 4-hydroxybenzoic acid 2-bromobenzylidene hydrazide.

AIM: The presence of functional gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP) receptors on adipocytes and knowledge that GIP plays a key role in fat deposition suggests a beneficial effect of GIP receptor antagonism in obesity and insulin resistance. GIP receptor antagonists studied to date are peptidic GIP analogues that must be administered by injection. METHODS: The present study has examined in vitro and in vivo metabolic actions of a low molecular weight GIP receptor modulator 4-hydroxybenzoic acid 2-bromobenzylidene hydrazide (4H2BH), suitable for oral administration. RESULTS: 4H2BH alone had no significant effect on cAMP production or insulin secretion from BRIN-BD11 cells. However, 4H2BH significantly inhibited GIP-mediated cAMP production and insulin secretion in vitro. 4H2BH also suppressed (p < 0.05 to p < 0.001) glucagon-induced elevations of cAMP generation and insulin secretion in BRIN-BD11 cells. However, 4H2BH had no effect on glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) mediated insulinotropic actions. Administration of 4H2BH to mice in combination with glucose and GIP significantly annulled the glucose-lowering actions of GIP. In agreement with this, 4H2BH completely annulled GIP-mediated insulin secretion. Combined injection of 4H2BH with glucagon also partially (p < 0.05 to p < 0.001) impaired glucagon-induced elevations in blood glucose and plasma insulin. 4H2BH had no effect on blood glucose or insulin levels when administered alone. CONCLUSION: These results indicate that 4H2BH has a dual effect of inhibiting GIP and glucagon-mediated biological actions. Given that hyperglucagonaemia is also a cardinal feature of type 2 diabetes, 4H2BH and related low molecular weight compounds appear worthy of further evaluation for therapeutic potential in obesity diabetes.

Glucagon receptor antagonist and GIP agonist combination for diet-induced obese mice.

Ablation of glucagon receptor signaling represents a potential treatment option for type 2 diabetes (T2DM). Additionally, activation of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) receptor signaling also holds therapeutic promise for T2DM. Therefore, this study examined both independent and combined metabolic actions of desHis(1)Pro(4)Glu(9)(Lys(12)PAL)-glucagon (glucagon receptor antagonist) and d-Ala(2)GIP (GIP receptor agonist) in diet-induced obese mice. Glucagon receptor binding has been linked to alpha-helical structure and desHis(1)Pro(4)Glu(9)(Lys(12)PAL)-glucagon displayed enhanced alpha-helical content compared with native glucagon. In clonal pancreatic BRIN-BD11 beta-cells, desHis(1)Pro(4)Glu(9)(Lys(12)PAL)-glucagon was devoid of any insulinotropic or cAMP-generating actions, and did not impede d-Ala(2)GIP-mediated (P<0.01 to P<0.001) effects on insulin and cAMP production. Twice-daily injection of desHis(1)Pro(4)Glu(9)(Lys(12)PAL)-glucagon or d-Ala(2)GIP alone, and in combination, in high-fat-fed mice failed to affect body weight or energy intake. Circulating blood glucose levels were significantly (P<0.05 to P<0.01) decreased by all treatments regimens, with plasma and pancreatic insulin elevated (P<0.05 to P<0.001) in all mice receiving d-Ala(2)GIP. Interestingly, plasma glucagon concentrations were decreased (P<0.05) by sustained glucagon inhibition (day 28), but increased (P<0.05) by d-Ala(2)GIP therapy, with a combined treatment resulting in glucagon concentration similar to saline controls. All treatments improved (P<0.01) intraperitoneal and oral glucose tolerance, and peripheral insulin sensitivity. d-Ala(2)GIP-treated mice showed increased glucose-induced insulin secretion in response to intraperitoneal and oral glucose. Metabolic rate and ambulatory locomotor activity were increased (P<0.05 to P<0.001) in all desHis(1)Pro(4)Glu(9)(Lys(12)PAL)-glucagon-treated mice. These studies highlight the potential of glucagon receptor inhibition alone, and in combination with GIP receptor activation, for T2DM treatment.

Characterisation of structurally modified analogues of glucagon as potential glucagon receptor antagonists.

Acute in vitro and in vivo biological activities of four novel structural analogues of glucagon were tested. desHis(1)Pro(4)-glucagon, desHis(1)Pro(4)Glu(9)-glucagon, desHis(1)Pro(4)Glu(9)Lys(12)FA-glucagon and desHis(1)Pro(4)Glu(9)Lys(30)FA-glucagon were stable to DPP-4 degradation and dose-dependently inhibited glucagon-mediated cAMP production (p<0.05 to p<0.001). None stimulated insulin secretion in vitro above basal levels, but all inhibited glucagon-induced insulin secretion (p<0.01 to p<0.001). In normal mice all analogues antagonised acute glucagon-mediated elevations of blood glucose (p<0.05 to p<0.001) and blocked corresponding insulinotropic responses. In high-fat fed mice, glucagon-induced increases in plasma insulin (p<0.05 to p<0.001) and glucagon-induced hyperglycaemia were blocked (p<0.05 to p<0.01) by three analogues. In obese diabetic (ob/ob) mice only desHis(1)Pro(4)Glu(9)-glucagon effectively (p<0.05 to p<0.01) inhibited both glucagon-mediated glycaemic and insulinotropic responses. desHis(1)Pro(4)-glucagon and desHis(1)Pro(4)Glu(9)-glucagon were biologically ineffective when administered 8h prior to glucagon, whereas desHis(1)Pro(4)Glu(9)Lys(12)FA-glucagon retained efficacy (p<0.01) for up to 24h. Such peptide-derived glucagon receptor antagonists have potential for type 2 diabetes therapy.