Review of spontaneous lesions in the exocrine pancreas of domestic ferrets (Mustela furo).

Large-scale retrospective studies allow for identification of disease trends, such as predisposing factors, typical clinical signs, and range of histologic lesions, which cannot be determined in individual case reports. Lesions of the endocrine pancreas of ferrets are extensively reported; however, there are no in-depth investigations of lesions in the exocrine pancreas. This retrospective analysis presents the histologic features, clinical signs, and concurrent diseases of lesions in the exocrine pancreas of ferrets. Seventy-seven lesions were reported and included acinar cell hyperplasia (n = 32), chronic pancreatitis (n = 16), acute pancreatitis (n = 13), acinar cell adenoma (n = 5), acinar cell carcinoma (n = 4), acinar cell atrophy (n = 3), presumptive acinar cell hypoplasia (n = 2), and lymphoma (n = 2). Our results demonstrate that acinar cell hyperplasia and chronic pancreatitis can both cause grossly visible pancreatic nodules. Hyperplasia was not associated with neoplastic transformation. In addition, acinar cell adenoma was slightly more common than carcinoma, which is contrary to most reports of neoplasia in ferrets. Our findings also suggest that acute pancreatitis can be a sequela to pancreatic biopsy and that there may be an association between chronic pancreatitis and diabetes mellitus in ferrets. Finally, zinc toxicosis was found to be an unlikely cause of pancreatitis in these ferrets based on zinc tissue concentration testing in a subset of cases.

Helicosporidium sp. infection in a California kingsnake (Lampropeltis californiae): Spillover of a pathogen of invertebrates to a vertebrate host.

Helicosporidium is a genus of nonphotosynthetic, green algae in the family Chlorellaceae, closely related to Prototheca. It is a known pathogen of invertebrates, and its occurrence in vertebrates has not been documented. A captive, 10-month-old, male, albino California kingsnake (Lampropeltis californiae) was submitted for necropsy. Gross examination revealed hemorrhagic laryngitis and a red mottled liver. Histologically, intravascular, intramonocytic/macrophagic and extracellular, eukaryotic organisms were observed in all tissues. These organisms stained positive with Grocott-Gomori methenamine silver and periodic acid-Schiff and were variably acid-fast and gram-positive. Ultrastructural analysis revealed approximately 4 µm vegetative multiplication forms and cysts with 3 parallel ovoid cells and a helically coiled filamentous cell. A polymerase chain reaction with primers targeting Prototheca, amplicon sequencing, and Bayesian phylogenetic analysis confirmed it clustered within Helicosporidium sp. with 100% posterior probability. The genus Helicosporidium was found to nest within the genus Prototheca, forming a clade with Prototheca wickerhamii with 80% posterior probability.

Amdoparvovirus-associated disease in red pandas (Ailurus fulgens).

The roster of amdoparvoviruses (APVs) in small carnivores is growing rapidly, but in most cases, the consequences of infection are poorly understood. Red panda amdoparvovirus (RPAV) is highly prevalent in zoo-housed red pandas and has been detected in both healthy and sick animals. Clarifying the clinical impact of RPAV in this endangered species is critical, and zoological collections offer a unique opportunity to examine viral disease association in carefully managed populations. We evaluated the potential impact of RPAV in captive red pandas with a combination of prospective and retrospective analyses. First, we collected feces from 2 healthy animals from one collection over a 6-year period and detected virus in 72/75 total samples, suggesting that RPAV can be a long-term subclinical infection. We next investigated the infections using a retrospective study of infection status and tissue distribution in a cohort of necropsied animals. We performed polymerase chain reaction and in situ hybridization on 43 necropsy cases from 4 zoo collections (3 from the United States, 1 from Europe, 1997-2022). RPAV was present in these populations for at least 2 decades before its discovery and is detectable in common and significant lesions of zoo-housed red pandas, including myocarditis (3/3 cases), nephritis (9/10), and interstitial pneumonia (2/4). RPAV is also detectable in sporadic lesions, including multisystemic pyogranulomatous inflammation, oral/pharyngeal mucosal inflammation, and dermatitis. The colocalization of virus with lesions supports a role in causation, suggesting that despite the apparently persistent and subclinical carriage of most infections, RPAV may have a significant impact in zoo collections.

Bacterial abscesses in whitespotted bamboo sharks (Chiloscyllium plagiosum) in managed care.

Sixteen whitespotted bamboo sharks (Chiloscyllium plagiosum) with histologically similar bacterial abscesses were submitted to Northwest ZooPath from nine zoo and aquarium institutions over a 17-year period. These abscesses were characterized by inflammatory cell infiltrates and necrosis with intralesional small, Gram-positive, acid-fast negative, cocci bacteria. The clinical presentation, histologic findings, and culture results indicate that Enterococcus faecalis is a relatively common cause of these lesions in whitespotted bamboo sharks. This organism also provides a treatment challenge due to its inherent antibiotic-resistant properties and ability to form biofilms, confounding the host's immune response. Enterococcus faecalis represents an important cause for abscess formation and cellulitis in captive whitespotted bamboo sharks.

GASTRIC POLYPOID HYPERPLASIA IN MORAY EELS (MURAENIDAE): EIGHT CASES.

Gastric and intestinal mucosal hyperplasia and polyps are identified as a cause of morbidity and mortality in moray eels. This report describes the clinical presentations, diagnostic procedures, and therapeutic interventions in eight moray eels diagnosed with gastric polypoid hyperplasia. All described cases were humanely euthanized or found deceased, and multifocal adenomatous hyperplasia and polyps extending from the gastric mucosal epithelium were identified in all cases. The moray eels diagnosed with adenomatous hyperplasia and polyps often exhibited anorexia, regurgitation, and occasional changes in buoyancy, and supportive care was unsuccessful in alleviating or resolving these signs.

A REVIEW OF NEOPLASIA IN PROSIMIANS IN HUMAN CARE FROM 1995 TO 2022.

This retrospective study of neoplasia in prosimians in human care reports histologically diagnosed cases from the archives of a nondomestic species pathology service between 1995 and 2022, primarily submitted from zoological institutions. To date, the only prior retrospective study of neoplasia in prosimians, published in 2009, was conducted with cases from a single institution specializing in prosimian noninvasive research and care. In the present study, a total of 153 neoplasms from 109 individuals were identified in the pathology service archives. The most commonly affected species belonged to the Lemuridae (92/109, 84.4%), particularly ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta; 55/109, 50.5%), black-and-white ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata; 19/109, 17.4%), and red ruffed lemurs (Varecia rubra; 14/109, 12.8%). The digestive (49/153, 32.0%), reproductive (35/153, 22.9%), and integumentary (30/153, 19.6%) systems were most commonly affected. Hepatocellular neoplasia was the most common neoplasm overall (35/153, 22.9%), with a large proportion of hepatocellular carcinoma (23/35, 65.7%), suggesting a possible predisposition to this tumor in prosimians. The findings support aggressive behavior of these tumors in prosimians, and a majority (13/23, 56.5%) of cases had evidence of metastasis at the time of submission. Mammary neoplasia was also common (25/153, 16.3%) and predominantly malignant (18/25, 72.0%), in contrast with previous literature, although metastasis was uncommonly reported. The most common integumentary neoplasms were papillomas (12/30, 40.0%), and one report identified squamous cell carcinoma arising directly from a squamous papilloma. Several tumor types are reported herein for the first time in prosimian species, to the authors' knowledge. A literature review identifying additional cases reported since 2009 is also reported. This study contributes a large number of prosimian neoplasia cases to the existing literature to help determine trends in zoological collections and to inform captive prosimian health management.

HEMANGIOSARCOMA IN RED WOLVES (CANIS RUFUS) AND GRAY WOLVES (CANIS LUPUS) IN HUMAN CARE: SIX CASES.

Wolves are commonly housed in zoological institutions and captive breeding facilities that are essential for maintaining genetic diversity and for the recovery of declining populations. Neoplasia is a common cause of mortality in wolves, but hemangiosarcoma has not previously been described. This condition was diagnosed in four red wolves (Canis rufus) and two gray wolves (Canis lupus) housed at five different institutions between 2008 and 2018. Animals were 11-16 yr of age at the time of presentation. Clinical signs included loss of body condition, abdominal distension, lethargy, weakness, ataxia, and hyporexia. Three animals were mildly anemic. All animals were humanely euthanized within an average of 3 d from onset of clinical signs. Two animals had primary splenic tumors, two had pelvic tumors with one originating from the aorta, and one had a cranial mediastinal mass. Diagnosis was made on postmortem histologic examination in all cases. Four wolves had evidence of metastases with foci in the lungs, lymph nodes, mesentery, liver, subcutis/skeletal muscle, kidney, adrenal, and thyroid gland. Hemangiosarcoma should be considered in geriatric wolves presenting with nonspecific signs, particularly if abdominal distension, free peritoneal fluid, or anemia is present.

USE OF HYSTEROSCOPIC MORCELLATION WITH A MYOSURE® DEVICE FOR REMOVAL OF UTERINE FOREIGN MATERIAL IN AN ORANGUTAN (PONGO SP.).

A 36-yr-old female intact hybrid orangutan (Pongo sp.) presented with evidence of chronic bacterial cystitis with no response to treatment with multiple systemic antibiotics. Abnormalities were identified within the reproductive tract on CT scan, and hysteroscopy was pursued based on the recommendation of an obstetrician-gynecologist. Hysteroscopic examination revealed a large amount of intrauterine foreign material consistent with wood wool from the orangutan's bedding. A hysteroscopic morcellator (MyoSure®) was used to remove the foreign material. Histologic examination of endometrial biopsies showed severe suppurative to pyogranulomatous endometritis with intralesional foreign (wood) fibers and bacteria. The orangutan was treated with antibiotics, but evidence of bacterial cystitis persisted. After 15 wk, additional wood wool was identified within the uterus by hysteroscopic examination and was removed similarly. Five months later, there was no recurrence of foreign material on hysteroscopy or CT. This report describes the first documentation of intrauterine foreign material in a nonhuman primate. Hysteroscopic morcellation is a useful technique for noninvasive removal of intrauterine foreign material in great apes.

PRIMARY HEPATIC NEOPLASIA IN THREE ADULT BAMBOO SHARKS (CHILOSCYLLIUM PLAGIOSUM AND CHILOSCYLLIUM PUNCTATUM) IN AN AQUARIUM POPULATION.

Neoplasia in elasmobranchs is uncommonly documented. This report describes primary hepatic neoplasia in three adult female bamboo sharks under managed care: biliary adenocarcinoma in a whitespotted bamboo shark (Case 1; Chiloscyllium plagiosum), biliary adenocarcinoma in a brownbanded bamboo shark (Case 2; Chiloscyllium punctatum), and hepatocellular carcinoma in a whitespotted bamboo shark (Case 3). Case 1 presented with extensive cutaneous papillomas and was electively euthanized. At necropsy, a 4-cm-diameter, pale-tan, firm hepatic mass was identified and diagnosed histologically as a biliary adenocarcinoma. Case 2 presented with decreasing body condition despite normal food intake. Coelomic ultrasound and exploratory surgery revealed several large masses in both hepatic lobes, and the patient was euthanized. At necropsy, nine, 1-6-cm-diameter, black to tan, firm hepatic masses were identified and diagnosed histologically as biliary adenocarcinoma with branchial intravascular neoplastic emboli. Case 3 presented for routine health examination and was euthanized for diagnostic purposes after coelomic ultrasound revealed multiple hepatic masses. At necropsy, two 1-3-cm-diameter, brown- and-black mottled, firm hepatic masses were identified and diagnosed histologically as hepatocellular carcinoma. Immunohistochemistry was performed in two of these cases and was noncontributory, likely because of a lack of cross reactivity between antibodies (antipancytokeratin) and elasmobranch tissues.

BILIARY DUCTAL PLATE MALFORMATION WITH SECONDARY PORTAL HYPERTENSION AND MULTIPLE ACQUIRED SHUNTS IN A LITTER OF AMUR TIGERS (PANTHERA TIGRIS ALTAICA).

Congenital abnormalities in tigers (Panthera tigris) are infrequently reported but have included ectrodactyly, cataracts, and vestibular disease. Primary hepatic disease has been documented in multiple nondomestic felid species but is considered uncommon in tigers. To the authors' knowledge, there are no previous reports of congenital abnormalities of the liver in tigers. In May 2022, two male Amur tiger cubs (Panthera tigris altaica) were born at a zoological institution via cesarean section to address dystocia, following the natural birth of a female cub. Between two and six months of age, all three cubs developed progressive lethargy, inappetence, and neurological signs consistent with hepatic encephalopathy, including obtundation and ataxia. In all three cases, serum biochemical values revealed progressive, marked elevations in hepatic enzyme levels with reduction in hepatic synthetic products (albumin, urea, cholesterol). Computed tomographic imaging showed a large cluster of aberrant tortuous vessels craniomedial to the left kidney in all three tigers, consistent with acquired extrahepatic portosystemic shunts. Histologic examination of the livers identified biliary ductal plate malformations. This report details the presentation, clinical findings, diagnoses, and therapeutic interventions attempted in three Amur tiger cubs with biliary ductal plate malformation and subsequent portal hypertension with multiple acquired portosystemic shunts, an unusual abnormality not previously reported in non-domestic felids.

SCHIZANGIELLA INFECTIONS IN AN EASTERN RATSNAKE (PANTHEROPHIS ALLEGHANIENSIS) AND A TIMBER RATTLESNAKE (CROTALUS HORRIDUS).

This report describes Schizangiella infections in colubrid and viperid snakes. A captive eastern ratsnake (Pantherophis alleghaniensis) was presented for a large intraoral mass associated with the mandible. The mass was debulked and histologic examination revealed severe, granulomatous stomatitis with intralesional fungi exhibiting morphologic features consistent with Schizangiella serpentis. PCR and sequencing of affected tissues confirmed S. serpentis. Because of declining health, the ratsnake was euthanized and postmortem examination identified a disseminated S. serpentis infection involving the skeletal musculature, lung, kidney, mesentery, and mandible. A wild-caught timber rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus) was presented for cutaneous lesions, weakness, and lethargy and later died. Postmortem examination revealed a mass-like structure in the esophagus characterized by high numbers of Schizangiella-like fungi associated with extensive granulomatous inflammation; the snake also had cutaneous mycosis suggestive of ophidiomycosis. This is the first report to document the unique morphologic features of S. serpentis in tissues and the presentation of schizangiellosis in snakes. Schizangiellosis should be considered as a differential diagnosis for nodular lesions involving the oral cavity and/or the gastrointestinal tract of snakes.

FATAL ACUTE HEMOLYSIS FOLLOWING TRIAZOLE THERAPY IN AFRICAN PENGUINS (SPHENISCUS DEMERSUS).

Aspergillosis is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in penguins, with triazole antifungal drugs being commonly used for prophylaxis and treatment. This report describes 15 cases of fatal hemolysis associated with liquid itraconazole and voriconazole formulations administered to African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) from four institutions. All penguins underwent stressful events (e.g. relocation, induced molt) and were administered commercial liquid itraconazole formulations or compounded voriconazole liquid suspension. Observed clinical signs in affected penguins prior to death included hyporexia, weight loss, lethargy, dyspnea, red-tinged droppings, and obtunded mentation. Intra- and extravascular hemolysis and hemoglobinuric nephrosis were the primary pathologic manifestations on postmortem examination. The concentration-dependent hemolytic potentials of itraconazole, voriconazole, and commercial and compounded vehicle suspensions were evaluated in vitro by exposing chicken whole blood as a surrogate for penguin blood. Hemoglobin content in blood plasma was then measured by spectrophotometry. Neither itraconazole nor voriconazole alone induced hemolysis in vitro. The vehicle ingredients sorbitol and hydromellose induced hemolysis, but not at predicted plasma levels in chicken erythrocytes, suggesting neither the azole antifungals nor their major vehicles alone were likely to contribute to hemolysis in vivo in these penguins. Potential mechanisms of toxicosis include generation of an unmeasured reactive metabolite causing hemolysis, preexisting erythrocyte fragility, or species-specific differences in hemolytic thresholds that were not assessed in the chicken erythrocyte model. More research is needed on the potential for toxicosis of azole antifungal drugs and carrier molecules in this and other avian species.

Aneurysm Associated with Vascular Wall Degeneration in Bearded Dragons (Pogona vitticeps).

This study describes the clinical, gross, and histologic findings in 17 cases of aneurysms in bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). The clinical presentation ranged from incidental to sudden and unexpected death. The affected vasculature was predominantly arterial; however, based on the topographical locations of the lesions, gross structure, and drainage, some veins were likely involved. Magnetic resonance imaging and computerized tomography scans of 1 animal showed a large aneurysm of the internal carotid artery extending from near its aortic origin into the caudal head. Aneurysms were organized in 5 groups based on their anatomical locations: cephalic, cranial coelom (for all near the heart), caudal coelom (for the mesenteric vessels and descending aorta), limbs, and tail. The cranial coelomic region was the most prevalent location. Gross findings were large hematomas or red serosanguineous fluid filling the adjacent area, as most of the aneurysms (94%) were ruptured at the time of the study. The main histological findings were degenerative changes of the vessel walls characterized by moderate to severe disruption of the collagen and elastic fibers of the tunica media and adventitia (100%), followed by thickening of the intima with thrombi formation (54%) and dissecting hematoma of the vessel wall (47%). Vasculitis (29%), mineralization (6%), and lipid deposits (6%) in the vessel wall were observed occasionally. Based on these findings, the vascular dilations and ruptures observed in bearded dragons likely are associated with weakness of the vessel walls caused by degenerative changes in the intimal and medial tunics.

Ocular lesions of captive cephalopods.

Ocular lesions are uncommonly reported and described in invertebrate species. In this study, cases from 2 diagnostic laboratories, in which lesions were noted in 33 diagnostic specimens from various species of cephalopods, including octopuses, squid, nautiluses, and cuttlefish, were reviewed. Clinical information and gross lesions were described in a minority of cases. The most common lesion was inflammation of varying severity and was most commonly within the anterior uvea (iris and ciliary papilla), followed by the posterior chamber and lens. More than half of the cases with inflammation had concurrent hyperplastic lesions of the iris and ciliary papilla, including posterior iris epithelial hyperplasia, cystic adenomatous hyperplasia, and/or posterior epithelial cysts. The most common clinical observation was cloudy eyes, which correlated histologically to anterior uveitis in all cases where it was documented. Dermatitis and cutaneous ulceration were the most frequent comorbidities in cases where clinical information was available.

Histologic lesions of cestodiasis in octopuses.

Parasitism of cephalopods is common, including infection with Aggregata spp., Ichthyobodo spp., dicyemids, cestodes of the orders Tetraphyllidea and Trypanorhynchidea, and various crustaceans. Cestodiasis in octopuses is reported, although a full histologic description of lesions has not been previously described. Cestodiasis was identified in 10 octopuses of 4 different species, which included 4 common octopuses (Octopus vulgaris), 3 Caribbean reef octopuses (Octopus briareus), 2 two-spot octopuses (Octopus bimaculoides), and 1 giant Pacific octopus (Enteroctopus dofleini). Larval cestodes were present in the cecum (n = 5), intestines (n = 4), digestive gland (n = 3), chitinous alimentary tract (n = 2), renal appendage (n = 1), and salivary duct (n = 1). In 5 cases, larval cestodes invaded tissue and were associated with hemocytic inflammation and tracts of necrotic tissue in the intestines (n = 3), digestive gland (n = 3), and/or renal appendage (n = 1). When present in the chitinous alimentary tract (esophagus, stomach) or cecum, larval cestodes were in the central lumen and not associated with lesions. One adult cestode was identified in the mantle cavity and was not associated with lesions. Other common concurrent parasitic infections included enteric Aggregata spp. infection, branchial Rickettsia-like organism infection, enteric nematodiasis, and an arthropod-associated branchitis.

MELANOCYTIC NEOPLASIA IN PANTHERA SPECIES: CLINICAL PRESENTATIONS, PATHOLOGIC FINDINGS AND RESPONSES TO TREATMENT.

Neoplasia is a common cause of morbidity and mortality in captive nondomestic felids. Seven tigers (Panthera tigris), two African lions (Panthera leo), and two snow leopards (Panthera uncia) were diagnosed with melanocytic neoplasia (10 malignant melanomas, two benign melanocytomas) over a 20-yr period. Animals were 10-19 yr old and 5/7 tigers were phenotypically white. Malignant melanoma tumor location included skin (n = 4), oral mucosa (n = 2), nasal planum (n = 1), iris/uvea (n = 2), and lip margin (n = 1); melanocytomas were found in skin (n = 2). Metastasis to regional lymph nodes was seen at diagnosis in 3/7 melanoma cases. Thoracic radiography (n = 6) and/or computed tomography (n = 2) did not detect pulmonary metastasis at diagnosis but were useful for detection later in the disease course. Median survival time (MST) for all cases ranged from 1 mon - 40 mon. Seven cases with malignant melanoma underwent treatment, which included surgery, radiation therapy, and administration of the canine melanoma vaccine (Oncept®) or a combination of these treatments; MST was 5-40 mon for these cases. While multimodal therapy may provide an improved survival time, the majority of animals with malignant melanoma invariably died from neoplastic disease. Necropsy confirmed metastasis of malignant melanoma in 7/9 animals; sites included lung, liver, lymph node, kidney, mesentery, pleural cavity, heart, stomach, spleen, and adrenal gland. This case series describes the clinical and histologic findings of melanocytic neoplasia in nondomestic felids as well as multimodal treatment strategies incorporating the canine melanoma vaccine.

MAMMARY GLAND ADENOCARCINOMA IN FOUR INDIAN CRESTED PORCUPINES (HYSTRIX INDICA).

Neoplasia in porcupines is rarely reported in the literature, and the prevalence is unknown. A retrospective review of records from a private zoo diagnostic pathology service found four cases of mammary adenocarcinoma in Indian crested porcupines (Hystrix indica) from four separate zoological institutions. All cases presented in geriatric females (14-19 yr of age) as freely movable subcutaneous masses within the mammary chain. None of the individuals had additional clinical signs, radiographic, or hematologic changes at initial presentation. All cases were managed with surgical excision in the form of either an excisional biopsy or a partial mastectomy. Histologic examination diagnosed all tumors with anaplasia and moderate to high numbers of mitotic figures. Two cases required subsequent surgeries for management of local recurrence in the years following initial diagnosis. One case is 19 months postsurgical removal without evidence of metastasis or local recurrence. Two of the cases were euthanized after diagnosis of inoperable metastases to the lungs and spinal cord, including one previously treated with an oral nonsteroidal antiestrogen medication, tamoxifen. The third case was euthanized due to degenerative mobility changes and renal dysfunction and had no evidence of metastasis. The average survival time from initial surgical excision to euthanasia for the three applicable cases was 33 months. These cases suggest that surgical excision alone may result in temporary management of mammary adenocarcinoma in this species. Metastasis can occur, and routine screening with advanced imaging may aid in early detection of these lesions.

MAST CELL NEOPLASIA IN THE GREEN IGUANA, IGUANA IGUANA.

This case series is the first description of mast cell neoplasia in green iguanas, Iguana iguana. All iguanas were adults. Six were females, and four were males. Lesions were associated with the oral cavity in 3 of 10 cases, and on the head in 3 of 10 cases. Three of the cases had masses over the trunk; a single case had a lesion on a limb. Single masses were most common involving the face or oral cavity (6 of 10), whereas four cases with neoplasia distributed along the trunk had multiple masses. One case developed peripheral blood mastocytosis. In most neoplasms, cells contained metachromatic granules in toluidine blue-stained sections. Polymerase chain reaction identified no internal tandem duplication mutation in exon 11 of c-kit, but a mutation in exon 8 in a single case. Compared with other reptiles, green iguanas may be predisposed to development of mast cell neoplasia.

HISTOLOGIC ANALYSIS OF TESTICULAR DEVELOPMENT AND SEXUAL MATURATION IN REHABILITATED NORTHERN SEA OTTERS (ENHYDRA LUTRIS KENYONI).

As part of routine captive management of the species, sea otter (Enhydra lutris) males are often castrated to prevent reproduction, to preserve limited spaces for future nonreleasable stranded individuals, and to minimize potential aggression among cohorts. To determine the relative stage of testicular development, testicles from 14 castrated, rehabilitated northern sea otters (Enhydra lutris kenyoni) were submitted for histologic examination. Eight of the otters (aged 201, 304, 344, 352, 360, 373, 401, and 1,423 d old) had evidence of varying degrees of sexual maturity. Histologic grading of maturity of individual testicles showed inactive testes, spermatocytes with some maturation of spermatogenic precursors, and fully active spermatogenesis. Spermatozoa were seen in the otters that were 401 and 1,423 d old (1.1 and 3.9 yr old). Sexual maturity for wild male sea otters in Alaska has been previously reported to occur from 3 to 5-6 yr. Social maturity, or the ability to breed and reproduce, may occur a few years later than the onset of physiologic maturity; age, weight, territory quality, and the length of time holding a territory may influence a male otter's mating success. Early testicular development in rehabilitated sea otters may be related to abundant resources, lack of competition, and decreased environmental pressures. Additionally, these findings have implications for husbandry and management practices in short- and long-term care facilities.

TRYPANOSOMA CRUZI INFECTION IN THREE SLENDER-TAILED MEERKATS (SURICATA SURICATTA).

Trypanosoma cruzi is a protozoan parasite primarily transmitted by triatomine insects (Hemiptera: subfamily Reduviidae) and is the cause of Chagas disease (CD). This report describes three cases of CD in a mob of five slender-tailed meerkats (Suricata suricatta) living in an outdoor exhibit at one zoological institution in Texas. The index case was a 9.5-yr-old female that presented with ataxia, lethargy, and pleural effusion. This case was diagnosed with CD postmortem via cytology, T. cruzi PCR of whole blood and lung fluid, and histology. Blood was opportunistically collected from the remaining four meerkats 28 d after the death of the index case and tested by PCR and serology. The second case was a clinically normal 7.5-yr-old male that tested PCR and antibody positive and the third case was a clinically normal 9-yr-old female that tested PCR positive. The second animal presented depressed, with pneumonia, and with continuous shivering 53 d after blood collection, and clinically improved after treatment with antibiotics and supportive care. Fifteen days later, the animal was found minimally responsive and died shortly thereafter. Histologic examination revealed Trypanosoma sp. amastigotes in the myocardium and the tissue was positive for T. cruzi DNA. The third meerkat, which received two separate courses of benznidazole over a span of almost 2 yr, was monitored routinely by PCR and serology and appeared clinically normal until found dead on exhibit 93 d after completion of the second treatment. Myocardium was positive for T. cruzi DNA. To the authors' knowledge, this case series is the first to document Chagas disease in meerkats and features associated cytologic and histologic findings.