Bile diversion, a bariatric surgery, and bile acid signaling reduce central cocaine reward.

The gut-to-brain axis exhibits significant control over motivated behavior. However, mechanisms supporting this communication are poorly understood. We reveal that a gut-based bariatric surgery chronically elevates systemic bile acids and attenuates cocaine-induced elevations in accumbal dopamine. Notably, this surgery reduces reward-related behavior and psychomotor sensitization to cocaine. Utilizing a knockout mouse model, we have determined that a main mediator of these post-operative effects is the Takeda G protein-coupled bile acid receptor (TGR5). Viral restoration of TGR5 in the nucleus accumbens of TGR5 knockout animals is sufficient to restore cocaine reward, centrally localizing this TGR5-mediated modulation. These findings define TGR5 and bile acid signaling as pharmacological targets for the treatment of cocaine abuse and reveal a novel mechanism of gut-to-brain communication.

Activation of Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor 7 Is Required for Induction of Long-Term Potentiation at SC-CA1 Synapses in the Hippocampus.

Of the eight metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptor subtypes, only mGlu7 is expressed presynaptically at the Schaffer collateral (SC)-CA1 synapse in the hippocampus in adult animals. Coupled with the inhibitory effects of Group III mGlu receptor agonists on transmission at this synapse, mGlu7 is thought to be the predominant autoreceptor responsible for regulating glutamate release at SC terminals. However, the lack of mGlu7-selective pharmacological tools has hampered direct testing of this hypothesis. We used a novel, selective mGlu7-negative allosteric modulator (NAM), ADX71743, and a newly described Group III mGlu receptor agonist, LSP4-2022, to elucidate the role of mGlu7 in modulating transmission in hippocampal area CA1 in adult C57BL/6J male mice. Interestingly, although mGlu7 agonists inhibit SC-CA1 EPSPs, we found no evidence for activation of mGlu7 by stimulation of SC-CA1 afferents. However, LSP4-2022 also reduced evoked monosynaptic IPSCs in CA1 pyramidal cells and, in contrast to its effect on SC-CA1 EPSPs, ADX71743 reversed the ability of high-frequency stimulation of SC afferents to reduce IPSC amplitudes. Furthermore, blockade of mGlu7 prevented induction of LTP at the SC-CA1 synapse and activation of mGlu7 potentiated submaximal LTP. Together, these data suggest that mGlu7 serves as a heteroreceptor at inhibitory synapses in area CA1 and that the predominant effect of activation of mGlu7 by stimulation of glutamatergic afferents is disinhibition, rather than reduced excitatory transmission. Furthermore, this mGlu7-mediated disinhibition is required for induction of LTP at the SC-CA1 synapse, suggesting that mGlu7 could serve as a novel therapeutic target for treatment of cognitive disorders.

Multisensory response modulation in the superficial layers of the superior colliculus.

The mammalian superior colliculus (SC) is made up of seven distinct layers. Based on overall differences in neuronal morphology, afferent and efferent projection patterns, physiological properties, and presumptive behavioral role, the upper three layers have been classically grouped together as the superficial layers and the remaining four layers collectively make up the deep layers. Although the superficial layers receive their primary inputs from the retina and primary visual cortex, the deep layers receive inputs from extrastriate visual cortical areas and from auditory, somatosensory, and motor-related structures. In contrast, there is no evidence of monosynaptic nonvisual inputs to the superficial layers. However, more recent studies have revealed anatomical connections between the superficial and deep layers, thus providing the substrate for possible communication between these two functional divisions of the SC. In this study, we provide physiological evidence for auditory influences on visual responses in the superficial layers of the SC. Using extracellular recordings of local field potentials (LFPs) and multiunit activity, we demonstrate multisensory effects in the superficial layers of the cat SC such that subthreshold auditory activity (as seen in the LFP) modulates visual responses (reflected in spiking activity) when the two stimuli are presented together. These results have important implications for our understanding of the functional organization of the SC and for the neural basis of multisensory integration in general.

Identifying and quantifying multisensory integration: a tutorial review.

We process information from the world through multiple senses, and the brain must decide what information belongs together and what information should be segregated. One challenge in studying such multisensory integration is how to quantify the multisensory interactions, a challenge that is amplified by the host of methods that are now used to measure neural, behavioral, and perceptual responses. Many of the measures that have been developed to quantify multisensory integration (and which have been derived from single unit analyses), have been applied to these different measures without much consideration for the nature of the process being studied. Here, we provide a review focused on the means with which experimenters quantify multisensory processes and integration across a range of commonly used experimental methodologies. We emphasize the most commonly employed measures, including single- and multiunit responses, local field potentials, functional magnetic resonance imaging, and electroencephalography, along with behavioral measures of detection, accuracy, and response times. In each section, we will discuss the different metrics commonly used to quantify multisensory interactions, including the rationale for their use, their advantages, and the drawbacks and caveats associated with them. Also discussed are possible alternatives to the most commonly used metrics.

Developmental plasticity of multisensory circuitry: how early experience dictates cross-modal interactions.

Normal sensory experience is necessary for the development of multisensory processing, such that disruption through environmental manipulations eliminates or alters multisensory integration. In this Neuro Forum, we examine the recent paper by Xu et al. (J Neurosci 32: 2287-2298, 2012) which proposes that the statistics of cross-modal stimuli encountered early in life might be a driving factor for the development of normal multisensory integrative abilities in superior colliculus neurons. We present additional interpretations of their analyses as well as future directions and translational implications of this study for understanding the neural substrates and plasticity inherent to multisensory processing.

Impact of response duration on multisensory integration.

Multisensory neurons in the superior colliculus (SC) have been shown to have large receptive fields that are heterogeneous in nature. These neurons have the capacity to integrate their different sensory inputs, a process that has been shown to depend on the physical characteristics of the stimuli that are combined (i.e., spatial and temporal relationship and relative effectiveness). Recent work has highlighted the interdependence of these factors in driving multisensory integration, adding a layer of complexity to our understanding of multisensory processes. In the present study our goal was to add to this understanding by characterizing how stimulus location impacts the temporal dynamics of multisensory responses in cat SC neurons. The results illustrate that locations within the spatial receptive fields (SRFs) of these neurons can be divided into those showing short-duration responses and long-duration response profiles. Most importantly, discharge duration appears to be a good determinant of multisensory integration, such that short-duration responses are typically associated with a high magnitude of multisensory integration (i.e., superadditive responses) while long-duration responses are typically associated with low integrative capacity. These results further reinforce the complexity of the integrative features of SC neurons and show that the large SRFs of these neurons are characterized by vastly differing temporal dynamics, dynamics that strongly shape the integrative capacity of these neurons.

Cocaine restricts nucleus accumbens feedforward drive through a monoamine-independent mechanism.

Parvalbumin-expressing fast-spiking interneurons (PV-INs) within feedforward microcircuits in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) coordinate goal-directed motivational behavior. Feedforward inhibition of medium spiny projection neurons (MSNs) is initiated by glutamatergic input from corticolimbic brain structures. While corticolimbic synapses onto MSNs are targeted by the psychostimulant, cocaine, it remains unknown whether cocaine also exerts acute neuromodulatory actions at collateralizing synapses onto PV-INs. Using whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiology, optogenetics, and pharmacological tools in transgenic reporter mice, we found that cocaine decreases thalamocortical glutamatergic drive onto PV-INs by engaging a monoamine-independent mechanism. This mechanism relies on postsynaptic sigma-1 (σ1) activity, leading to the mobilization of intracellular Ca2+ stores that trigger retrograde endocannabinoid signaling at presynaptic type-1 cannabinoid receptors (CB1R). Cocaine-evoked CB1R activity occludes the expression of CB1R-dependent long-term depression (LTD) at this synaptic locus. These findings provide evidence that acute cocaine exposure targets feedforward microcircuits in the NAc and extend existing models of cocaine action on mesolimbic reward circuits.

Calcium-Permeable AMPA Receptors Promote Endocannabinoid Signaling at Parvalbumin Interneuron Synapses in the Nucleus Accumbens Core.

Synaptic plasticity is a key mechanism of learning and memory. Synaptic plasticity mechanisms within the nucleus accumbens (NAc) mediate differential behavioral adaptations. Feedforward inhibition in the NAc occurs when glutamatergic afferents onto medium spiny neurons (MSNs) collateralize onto fast-spiking parvalbumin (PV)-expressing interneurons (PV-INs), which exert GABAergic control over MSN action potential generation. Here, we find that feedforward glutamatergic synapses onto PV-INs in the NAc core selectively express Ca2+-permeable AMPA receptors (CP-AMPARs). Ca2+ influx by CP-AMPARs on PV-INs triggers long-term depression (LTD) mediated by endocannabinoid (eCB) signaling at presynaptic cannabinoid type-1 (CB1) receptors (CB1Rs). Moreover, CP-AMPARs authorize tonic eCB signaling to negatively regulate glutamate release probability. Blockade of CP-AMPARs in the NAc core in vivo is sufficient to disinhibit locomotor output. These findings elucidate mechanisms by which PV-IN-embedded microcircuits in the NAc undergo activity-dependent shifts in synaptic strength.

Inherent rhythmicity and interstitial cells of Cajal in a frog vein.

Interstitial cells of Cajal are responsible for rhythmic contractions of the musculature of the gastrointestinal tract and blood vessels.The existence of these cells and spontaneous rhythmicity were noticed in amphibian vein and the findings are reported in this paper.The postcaval vein was identified in the frog, Rana tigrina and was perfused with amphibian Ringer solution after isolation.Contractile activity was recorded through a tension transducer connected to a polygraph.The isolated postcaval vein showed spontaneous rhythmic activity. Addition of cold Ringer solution decreased, while warm Ringer increased, the rate of contraction. Adrenaline caused inhibition of rhythmic activity at a dosage that increased the rate of isolated sinus venosus.Sections of the postcaval vein,when stained supravitally with methylene blue, showed the presence of interstitial cells of Cajal. Photic stimulation of the vein in the presence of methylene blue led to a significant decrease in the rate of spontaneous beating of the vein.These findings indicate that the postcaval vein of frog is capable of inherent rhythmcity, which is dependent on the interstitial cells of Cajal but is independent of the sinus venosus.

Shank Proteins Differentially Regulate Synaptic Transmission.

Shank proteins, one of the principal scaffolds in the postsynaptic density (PSD) of the glutamatergic synapses, have been associated with autism spectrum disorders and neuropsychiatric diseases. However, it is not known whether different Shank family proteins have distinct functions in regulating synaptic transmission, and how they differ from other scaffold proteins in this aspect. Here, we investigate the role of Shanks in regulating glutamatergic synaptic transmission at rat hippocampal SC-CA1 synapses, using lentivirus-mediated knockdown and molecular replacement combined with dual whole-cell patch clamp in hippocampal slice culture. In line with previous findings regarding PSD-MAGUK scaffold manipulation, we found that loss of scaffold proteins via knockdown of Shank1 or Shank2, but not Shank3, led to a reduction of the number but not the unitary response of AMPAR-containing synapses. Only when both Shank1 and Shank2 were knocked down, were both the number and the unitary response of active synapses reduced. This reduction was accompanied by a decrease in NMDAR-mediated synaptic response, indicating more profound deficits in synaptic transmission. Molecular replacement with Shank2 and Shank3c rescued the synaptic transmission to the basal level, and the intact sterile α-motif (SAM) of Shank proteins is required for maintaining glutamatergic synaptic transmission. We also found that altered neural activity did not influence the effect of Shank1 or Shank2 knockdown on AMPAR synaptic transmission, in direct contrast to the activity dependence of the effect of PSD-95 knockdown, revealing differential interaction between activity-dependent signaling and scaffold protein families in regulating synaptic AMPAR function.

Convergent approaches toward the study of multisensory perception.

Classical analytical approaches for examining multisensory processing in individual neurons have relied heavily on changes in mean firing rate to assess the presence and magnitude of multisensory interaction. However, neurophysiological studies within individual sensory systems have illustrated that important sensory and perceptual information is encoded in forms that go beyond these traditional spike-based measures. Here we review analytical tools as they are used within individual sensory systems (auditory, somatosensory, and visual) to advance our understanding of how sensory cues are effectively integrated across modalities (e.g., audiovisual cues facilitating speech processing). Specifically, we discuss how methods used to assess response variability (Fano factor, or FF), local field potentials (LFPs), current source density (CSD), oscillatory coherence, spike synchrony, and receiver operating characteristics (ROC) represent particularly promising tools for understanding the neural encoding of multisensory stimulus features. The utility of each approach and how it might optimally be applied toward understanding multisensory processing is placed within the context of exciting new data that is just beginning to be generated. Finally, we address how underlying encoding mechanisms might shape-and be tested alongside with-the known behavioral and perceptual benefits that accompany multisensory processing.