Blood pressure and the kidney cortex transcriptome response to high-sodium diet challenge in female nonhuman primates.

Blood pressure (BP) is influenced by genetic variation and sodium intake with sex-specific differences; however, studies to identify renal molecular mechanisms underlying the influence of sodium intake on BP in nonhuman primates (NHP) have focused on males. To address the gap in our understanding of molecular mechanisms regulating BP in female primates, we studied sodium-naïve female baboons (n = 7) fed a high-sodium (HS) diet for 6 wk. We hypothesized that in female baboons variation in renal transcriptional networks correlates with variation in BP response to a high-sodium diet. BP was continuously measured for 64-h periods throughout the study by implantable telemetry devices. Sodium intake, blood samples for clinical chemistries, and ultrasound-guided kidney biopsies were collected before and after the HS diet for RNA-Seq and bioinformatic analyses. We found that on the LS diet but not the HS diet, sodium intake and serum 17 ß-estradiol concentration correlated with BP. Furthermore, kidney transcriptomes differed by diet-unbiased weighted gene coexpression network analysis revealed modules of genes correlated with BP on the HS diet but not the LS diet. Our results showed variation in BP on the HS diet correlated with variation in novel kidney gene networks regulated by ESR1 and MYC; i.e., these regulators have not been associated with BP regulation in male humans or rodents. Validation of the mechanisms underlying regulation of BP-associated gene networks in female NHP will inform better therapies toward greater precision medicine for women.

Analysis of 100 high-coverage genomes from a pedigreed captive baboon colony.

Baboons (genus Papio) are broadly studied in the wild and in captivity. They are widely used as a nonhuman primate model for biomedical studies, and the Southwest National Primate Research Center (SNPRC) at Texas Biomedical Research Institute has maintained a large captive baboon colony for more than 50 yr. Unlike other model organisms, however, the genomic resources for baboons are severely lacking. This has hindered the progress of studies using baboons as a model for basic biology or human disease. Here, we describe a data set of 100 high-coverage whole-genome sequences obtained from the mixed colony of olive (P. anubis) and yellow (P. cynocephalus) baboons housed at the SNPRC. These data provide a comprehensive catalog of common genetic variation in baboons, as well as a fine-scale genetic map. We show how the data can be used to learn about ancestry and admixture and to correct errors in the colony records. Finally, we investigated the consequences of inbreeding within the SNPRC colony and found clear evidence for increased rates of infant mortality and increased homozygosity of putatively deleterious alleles in inbred individuals.

Integrated omics analysis reveals sirtuin signaling is central to hepatic response to a high fructose diet.

BACKGROUND: Dietary high fructose (HFr) is a known metabolic disruptor contributing to development of obesity and diabetes in Western societies. Initial molecular changes from exposure to HFr on liver metabolism may be essential to understand the perturbations leading to insulin resistance and abnormalities in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. We studied vervet monkeys (Clorocebus aethiops sabaeus) fed a HFr (n=5) or chow diet (n=5) for 6 weeks, and obtained clinical measures of liver function, blood insulin, cholesterol and triglycerides. In addition, we performed untargeted global transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics analyses on liver biopsies to determine the molecular impact of a HFr diet on coordinated pathways and networks that differed by diet. RESULTS: We show that integration of omics data sets improved statistical significance for some pathways and networks, and decreased significance for others, suggesting that multiple omics datasets enhance confidence in relevant pathway and network identification. Specifically, we found that sirtuin signaling and a peroxisome proliferator activated receptor alpha (PPARA) regulatory network were significantly altered in hepatic response to HFr. Integration of metabolomics and miRNAs data further strengthened our findings. CONCLUSIONS: Our integrated analysis of three types of omics data with pathway and regulatory network analysis demonstrates the usefulness of this approach for discovery of molecular networks central to a biological response. In addition, metabolites aspartic acid and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), protein ATG3, and genes ATG7, and HMGCS2 link sirtuin signaling and the PPARA network suggesting molecular mechanisms for altered hepatic gluconeogenesis from consumption of a HFr diet.

Primate fetal hepatic responses to maternal obesity: epigenetic signalling pathways and lipid accumulation.

KEY POINTS: Maternal obesity (MO) and exposure to a high-fat, high-simple-carbohydrate diet during pregnancy predisposes offspring to obesity, metabolic and cardiovascular disorders in later life. Underlying molecular pathways and potential epigenetic factors that are dysregulated in MO were identified using unbiased transcriptomic methods. There was increased lipid accumulation and severe steatosis in the MO baboon fetal liver suggesting that these offspring are on an early trajectory of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. ABSTRACT: Maternal obesity (MO) increases offspring cardiometabolic disease risk. Altered fetal liver development in response to the challenge of MO has metabolic consequences underlying adverse offspring life-course health outcomes. Little is known about the molecular pathways and potential epigenetic changes regulating primate fetal liver responses to MO. We hypothesized that MO would induce fetal baboon liver epigenetic changes resulting in dysregulation of key metabolic pathways that impact lipid metabolism. MO was induced prior to pregnancy by a high-fat, high-fructose diet. Unbiased gene and microRNA (small RNA Seq) abundance analyses were performed on fetal baboon livers at 0.9 gestation and subjected to pathway analyses to identify fetal liver molecular responses to MO. Fetal baboon liver lipid and glycogen content were quantified by the Computer Assisted Stereology Toolbox. In response to MO, fetal livers revealed dysregulation of TCA cycle, proteasome, oxidative phosphorylation, glycolysis and Wnt/ß-catenin signalling pathways together with marked lipid accumulation supporting our hypothesis that multiple pathway dysregulation detrimentally impacts lipid management. This is the first study of MO programming of the non-human primate fetal liver using unbiased transcriptome analysis to detect changes in hepatic gene expression levels and identify potential microRNA epigenetic regulators of metabolic disruption.

The non-human primate kidney transcriptome in fetal development.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the repertoire of non-human primate kidney genes expressed throughout development. The present work establishes an understanding of the primate renal transcriptome during fetal development in the context of renal maturation. METHODS: The baboon kidney transcriptome was characterized at 60-day gestation (DG), 90 DG, 125 DG, 140 DG, 160 DG and adulthood (6-12 years) using gene arrays and validated by QRT-PCR. Pathway and cluster analyses were used to characterize gene expression in the context of biological pathways. RESULTS: Pathway analysis indicated activation of pathways not previously reported as relevant to kidney development. Cluster analysis also revealed gene splice variants with discordant expression profiles during development. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides the first detailed genetic analysis of the developing primate kidney, and our findings of discordant expression of gene splice variants suggest that gene arrays likely provide a simplified view and demonstrate the need to study the fetal renal proteome.

HyCCAPP as a tool to characterize promoter DNA-protein interactions in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Currently available methods for interrogating DNA-protein interactions at individual genomic loci have significant limitations, and make it difficult to work with unmodified cells or examine single-copy regions without specific antibodies. In this study, we describe a physiological application of the Hybridization Capture of Chromatin-Associated Proteins for Proteomics (HyCCAPP) methodology we have developed. Both novel and known locus-specific DNA-protein interactions were identified at the ENO2 and GAL1 promoter regions of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and revealed subgroups of proteins present in significantly different levels at the loci in cells grown on glucose versus galactose as the carbon source. Results were validated using chromatin immunoprecipitation. Overall, our analysis demonstrates that HyCCAPP is an effective and flexible technology that does not require specific antibodies nor prior knowledge of locally occurring DNA-protein interactions and can now be used to identify changes in protein interactions at target regions in the genome in response to physiological challenges.

Identification of candidate genes encoding an LDL-C QTL in baboons.

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death in developed countries, and dyslipidemia is a major risk factor for CVD. We previously identified a cluster of quantitative trait loci (QTL) on baboon chromosome 11 for multiple, related quantitative traits for serum LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C). Here we report differentially regulated hepatic genes encoding an LDL-C QTL that influences LDL-C levels in baboons. We performed hepatic whole-genome expression profiling for LDL-C-discordant baboons fed a high-cholesterol, high-fat (HCHF) diet for seven weeks. We detected expression of 117 genes within the QTL 2-LOD support interval. Three genes were differentially expressed in low LDL-C responders and 8 in high LDL-C responders in response to a HCHF diet. Seven genes (ACVR1B, CALCOCO1, DGKA, ERBB3, KRT73, MYL6B, TENC1) showed discordant expression between low and high LDL-C responders. To prioritize candidate genes, we integrated miRNA and mRNA expression profiles using network tools and found that four candidates (ACVR1B, DGKA, ERBB3, TENC1) were miRNA targets and that the miRNAs were inversely expressed to the target genes. Candidate gene expression was validated using QRT-PCR and Western blotting. This study reveals candidate genes that influence variation in LDL-C in baboons and potential genetic mechanisms for further investigation.

Expression of the placental transcriptome in maternal nutrient reduction in baboons is dependent on fetal sex.

Maternal undernutrition increases the risk of perinatal complications and predisposes offspring to obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease later in life. Emerging evidence suggests that changes in placental function play a role in linking altered maternal nutrition in pregnancy to the subsequent development of adult disease. The susceptibility for disease in response to an adverse intrauterine environment differs distinctly between boys and girls, with girls typically having better outcomes. Here, we tested the hypothesis that regulation of the placental transcriptome by maternal nutrient reduction (NR) is dependent on fetal sex. We used a nonhuman primate model of NR in which maternal global food intake was reduced by 30% in baboons starting at gestational day (GD) 30. At GD 165 (term = GD 183), placental genome expression profiling of 6 control (n = 3 females, 3 males) and 6 nutrient restricted (n = 3 females, 3 males) fetuses was carried out followed by bioinformatic analysis. Surprisingly, there was no coordinated placental molecular response to decreased nutrient availability when analyzing the data without accounting for fetal sex. In contrast, female placentas exhibited a highly coordinated response that included upregulation of genes in networks, pathways, and functional groups related to programmed cell death and downregulation of genes in networks, pathways, and functional groups associated with cell proliferation. These changes were not apparent in the male placentas. Our data support the concept that female placentas initiate complex adaptive responses to an adverse intrauterine environment, which may contribute to increased survival and better pregnancy outcomes in girls.

Potential miRNA biomarkers and therapeutic targets for early atherosclerotic lesions.

Identification of potential therapeutic targets and biomarkers indicative of burden of early atherosclerosis that occur prior to advancement to life-threatening unstable plaques is the key to eradication of CAD prevalence and incidences. We challenged 16 baboons with a high cholesterol, high fat diet for 2 years and evaluated early-stage atherosclerotic lesions (fatty streaks, FS, and fibrous plaques, FP) in formalin-fixed common iliac arteries (CIA). We used small RNA sequencing to identify expressed miRNAs in CIA and in baseline blood samples of the same animals. We found 412 expressed miRNAs in CIA and 356 in blood samples. Eight miRNAs (miR-7975, -486-5p, -451a, -191-5p, -148a-3p, -17-5p, -378c, and -144-3p) were differentially expressed between paired fatty streak lesion and no-lesion sites of the tissue, and 27 miRNAs (e.g., miR-92a-3p, -5001, -342-3p, miR-28-3p, -21-5p, -221-3p, 146a-5p, and -16-5p) in fibrous plaques. The expression of 14 blood miRNAs significantly correlated with extent of lesions and the number of plaques. We identified coordinately regulated miRNA-gene networks in which miR-17-5p and miR-146a-5p are central hubs and miR-5001 and miR-7975 are potentially novel miRNAs associated with early atherosclerosis. In summary, we have identified miRNAs expressed in lesions and in blood that correlate with lesion burden and are potential therapeutic targets and biomarkers. These findings are a first step in elucidating miRNA regulated molecular mechanisms that underlie early atherosclerosis in a baboon model, enabling translation of our findings to humans.

Moderate maternal nutrient reduction in pregnancy alters fatty acid oxidation and RNA splicing in the nonhuman primate fetal liver.

Fetal liver tissue collected from a nonhuman primate (NHP) baboon model of maternal nutrient reduction (MNR) at four gestational time points (90, 120, 140, and 165 days gestation [dG], term in the baboon is ∼185 dG) was used to quantify MNR effects on the fetal liver transcriptome. 28 transcripts demonstrated different expression patterns between MNR and control livers during the second half of gestation, a developmental period when the fetus undergoes rapid weight gain and fat accumulation. Differentially expressed transcripts were enriched for fatty acid oxidation and RNA splicing-related pathways. Increased RNA splicing activity in MNR was reflected in greater abundances of transcript splice variant isoforms in the MNR group. It can be hypothesized that the increase in splice variants is deployed in an effort to adapt to the poor in utero environment and ensure near-normal development and energy metabolism. This study is the first to study developmental programming across four critical gestational stages during primate fetal liver development and reveals a potentially novel cellular response mechanism mediating fetal programming in response to MNR.

A genome resource to address mechanisms of developmental programming: determination of the fetal sheep heart transcriptome.

The pregnant sheep has provided seminal insights into reproduction related to animal and human development (ovarian function, fertility, implantation, fetal growth, parturition and lactation). Fetal sheep physiology has been extensively studied since 1950, contributing significantly to the basis for our understanding of many aspects of fetal development and behaviour that remain in use in clinical practice today. Understanding mechanisms requires the combination of systems approaches uniquely available in fetal sheep with the power of genomic studies. Absence of the full range of sheep genomic resources has limited the full realization of the power of this model, impeding progress in emerging areas of pregnancy biology such as developmental programming. We have examined the expressed fetal sheep heart transcriptome using high-throughput sequencing technologies. In so doing we identified 36,737 novel transcripts and describe genes, gene variants and pathways relevant to fundamental developmental mechanisms. Genes with the highest expression levels and with novel exons in the fetal heart transcriptome are known to play central roles in muscle development. We show that high-throughput sequencing methods can generate extensive transcriptome information in the absence of an assembled and annotated genome for that species. The gene sequence data obtained provide a unique genomic resource for sheep specific genetic technology development and, combined with the polymorphism data, augment annotation and assembly of the sheep genome. In addition, identification and pathway analysis of novel fetal sheep heart transcriptome splice variants is a first step towards revealing mechanisms of genetic variation and gene environment interactions during fetal heart development.

Differential microRNA response to a high-cholesterol, high-fat diet in livers of low and high LDL-C baboons.

BACKGROUND: Dysregulation of microRNA (miRNA) expression has been implicated in molecular genetic events leading to the progression and development of atherosclerosis. We hypothesized that miRNA expression profiles differ between baboons with low and high serum low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) concentrations in response to diet, and that a subset of these miRNAs regulate genes relevant to dyslipidemia and risk of atherosclerosis. RESULTS: Using Next Generation Illumina sequencing methods, we sequenced hepatic small RNA libraries from baboons differing in their LDL-C response to a high-cholesterol, high-fat (HCHF) challenge diet (low LDL-C, n = 3; high LDL-C, n = 3), resulting in 517 baboon miRNAs: 490 were identical to human miRNAs and 27 were novel. We compared miRNA expression profiles from liver biopsies collected before and after the challenge diet and observed that HCHF diet elicited expression of more miRNAs compared to baseline (chow) diet for both low and high LDL-C baboons. Eighteen miRNAs exhibited differential expression in response to HCHF diet in high LDL-C baboons compared to 10 miRNAs in low LDL-C baboons. We used TargetScan/Base tools to predict putative miRNA targets; miRNAs expressed in high LDL-C baboons had significantly more gene targets than miRNAs expressed in low LDL-C responders. Further, we identified miRNA isomers and other non-coding RNAs that were differentially expressed in response to the challenge diet in both high LDL-C and low LDL-C baboons. CONCLUSIONS: We sequenced and annotated baboon liver miRNAs from low LDL-C and high LDL-C responders using high coverage Next Gen sequencing methods, determined expression changes in response to a HCHF diet challenge, and predicted target genes regulated by the differentially expressed miRNAs. The identified miRNAs will enrich the database for non-coding small RNAs including the extent of variation in these sequences. Further, we identified other small non-coding RNAs differentially expressed in response to diet. Our discovery of differentially expressed baboon miRNAs in response to a HCHF diet challenge that differ by LDL-C phenotype is a fundamental step in understating the role of non-coding RNAs in dyslipidemia.

Identification of baboon microRNAs expressed in liver and lymphocytes.

BACKGROUND: MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small noncoding RNAs (~22 nucleotides) that regulate gene expression by cleaving mRNAs or inhibiting translation. The baboon is a well-characterized cardiovascular disease model; however, no baboon miRNAs have been identified. Evidence indicates that the baboon and human genomes are highly conserved; based on this conservation, we hypothesized that comparative genomic methods could be used to identify baboon miRNAs. METHODS: We employed an in silico comparative genomics approach and human miRNA arrays to identify baboon expressed miRNAs in liver (n = 6) and lymphocytes (n = 6). Expression profiles for selected miRNAs in multiple tissues were validated by RT-PCR. RESULTS: We identified in silico 555 putative baboon pre-miRNAs, of which 41% exhibited 100% identity and an additional 58% shared more than 90% sequence identity with human pre-miRNAs. Some of these miRNAs are primate-specific and are clustered in the baboon genome like human miRNA clusters. We detected expression of 494 miRNAs on the microarray and validated expression of selected miRNAs in baboon liver and lymphocytes by RT-PCR. We also observed miRNA expression in additional tissues relevant to dyslipidemia and atherosclerosis. Approximately half of the miRNAs expressed on the array were not predicted in silico suggesting that we have identified novel baboon miRNAs, which could not be predicted using the current draft of the baboon genome. CONCLUSION: We identified a subset of baboon miRNAs using a comparative genomic approach, identified additional baboon miRNAs using a human array and showed tissue-specific expression of baboon miRNAs. Our discovery of baboon miRNAs in liver and lymphocytes will provide resources for studies on the roles of miRNAs in dyslipidemia and atherosclerosis, and for translational studies.

Developmental alterations in the transcriptome of three distinct rodent models of schizophrenia.

Schizophrenia is a debilitating disorder affecting just under 1% of the population. While the symptoms of this disorder do not appear until late adolescence, pathological alterations likely occur earlier, during development in utero. While there is an increasing literature examining transcriptome alterations in patients, it is not possible to examine the changes in gene expression that occur during development in humans that will develop schizophrenia. Here we utilize three distinct rodent developmental disruption models of schizophrenia to examine potential overlapping alterations in the transcriptome, with a specific focus on markers of interneuron development. Specifically, we administered either methylazoxymethanol acetate (MAM), Polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (Poly I:C), or chronic protein malnutrition, on GD 17 and examined mRNA expression in the developing hippocampus of the offspring 18 hours later. Here, we report alterations in gene expression that may contribute to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, including significant alterations in interneuron development and ribosome function.

Identification of coordinately regulated microRNA-gene networks that differ in baboons discordant for LDL-cholesterol.

RATIONALE: Plasma low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (plasma LDL-C), vascular endothelial cells and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), particularly monocytes, play key roles in initiating atherosclerosis, the primary cause of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Although the mechanisms underlying development of atherosclerosis are not well understood, LDL-C is known to influence expression of endothelial microRNAs (miRNAs) and gene-targets of miRNAs to promote cell senescence. However, the impact of LDL-C on expression of PBMC miRNAs and miRNA targeted genes in response to an atherogenic diet is not known. In this study, we used unbiased methods to identify coordinately responsive PBMC miRNA- gene networks that differ between low and high LDL-C baboons when fed a high-cholesterol, high-fat (HCHF) diet. METHODS AND RESULTS: Using RNA Seq, we quantified PBMC mRNAs and miRNAs from half-sib baboons discordant for LDL-C plasma concentrations (low LDL-C, n = 3; high LDL-C, n = 3) before and after a 7-week HCHF diet challenge. For low LDL-C baboons, 626 genes exhibited significant change in expression (255 down-regulated, 371 up-regulated) in response to the HCHF diet, and for high LDL-C baboons 379 genes exhibited significant change in expression (162 down-regulated, 217 up-regulated) in response to the HCHF diet. We identified 494 miRNAs identical to human miRNAs and 47 novel miRNAs. Fifty miRNAs were differentially expressed in low LDL-C baboons (21 up- and 29 down-regulated) and 20 in high LDL-C baboons (11 up- and 9 down-regulated) in response to the HCHF diet. Among the differentially expressed miRNAs were miR-221/222 and miR-34a-3p, which were down-regulated, and miR-148a/b-5p, which was up-regulated. In addition, gene-targets of these miRNAs, VEGFA, MAML3, SPARC, and DMGDH, were inversely expressed and are central hub genes in networks and signaling pathways that differ between low and high LDL-C baboon HCHF diet response. CONCLUSIONS: We have identified coordinately regulated HCHF diet-responsive PBMC miRNA-gene networks that differ between baboons discordant for LDL-C concentrations. Our findings provide potential insights into molecular mechanisms underlying initiation of atherosclerosis where LDL-C concentrations influence expression of specific miRNAs, which in turn regulate expression of genes that play roles in initiation of lesions.

Mechanistic Target of Rapamycin Complex 1 Promotes the Expression of Genes Encoding Electron Transport Chain Proteins and Stimulates Oxidative Phosphorylation in Primary Human Trophoblast Cells by Regulating Mitochondrial Biogenesis.

Trophoblast oxidative phosphorylation provides energy for active transport and protein synthesis, which are critical placental functions influencing fetal growth and long-term health. The molecular mechanisms regulating trophoblast mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation are largely unknown. We hypothesized that mechanistic Target of Rapamycin Complex 1 (mTORC1) is a positive regulator of key genes encoding Electron Transport Chain (ETC) proteins and stimulates oxidative phosphorylation in trophoblast and that ETC protein expression is down-regulated in placentas of infants with intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). We silenced raptor (mTORC1 inhibition), rictor (mTORC2 inhibition) or DEPTOR (mTORC1/2 activation) in cultured term primary human trophoblast (PHT) cells. mTORC1 inhibition caused a coordinated down-regulation of 18 genes encoding ETC proteins representing all ETC complexes. Inhibition of mTORC1, but not mTORC2, decreased protein expression of ETC complexes I-IV, mitochondrial basal, ATP coupled and maximal respiration, reserve capacity and proton leak, whereas activation of mTORC1 had the opposite effects. Moreover, placental protein expression of ETC complexes was decreased and positively correlated to mTOR signaling activity in IUGR. By controlling trophoblast ATP production, mTORC1 links nutrient and O2 availability and growth factor signaling to placental function and fetal growth. Reduced placental mTOR activity may impair mitochondrial respiration and contribute to placental insufficiency in IUGR pregnancies.

The baboon kidney transcriptome: analysis of transcript sequence, splice variants, and abundance.

The baboon is an invaluable model for the study of human health and disease, including many complex diseases of the kidney. Although scientists have made great progress in developing this animal as a model for numerous areas of biomedical research, genomic resources for the baboon, such as a quality annotated genome, are still lacking. To this end, we characterized the baboon kidney transcriptome using high-throughput cDNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) to identify genes, gene variants, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), insertion-deletion polymorphisms (InDels), cellular functions, and key pathways in the baboon kidney to provide a genomic resource for the baboon. Analysis of our sequencing data revealed 45,499 high-confidence SNPs and 29,813 InDels comparing baboon cDNA sequences with the human hg18 reference assembly and identified 35,900 cDNAs in the baboon kidney, including 35,150 transcripts representing 15,369 genic genes that are novel for the baboon. Gene ontology analysis of our sequencing dataset also identified numerous biological functions and canonical pathways that were significant in the baboon kidney, including a large number of metabolic pathways that support known functions of the kidney. The results presented in this study catalogues the transcribed mRNAs, noncoding RNAs, and hypothetical proteins in the baboon kidney and establishes a genomic resource for scientists using the baboon as an experimental model.

A custom rat and baboon hypertension gene array to compare experimental models.

One challenge in understanding the polygenic disease of hypertension is elucidating the genes involved and defining responses to environmental factors. Many studies focus on animal models of hypertension; however, this does not necessarily extrapolate to humans. Current technology and cost limitations are prohibitive in fully evaluating hypertension within humans. Thus, we have designed a single-array platform that allows direct comparison of genes relevant to hypertension in animal models and non-human primates/human hypertension. The custom array is targeted to 328 genes known to be potentially related to blood pressure control. Studies compared gene expression in the kidney from normotensive rats and baboons. We found 74 genes expressed in both the rat and baboon kidney, 41 genes expressed in the rat kidney that were not detected in the baboon kidney and 34 genes expressed in the baboon kidney that were not detected in the rat kidney. To begin the evaluation of the array in a pathological condition, kidney gene expression was compared between the salt-sensitive deoxycorticosterone acetate (DOCA) rat model of hypertension and sham animals. Gene expression in the renal cortex and medulla from hypertensive DOCA compared with sham rats revealed three genes differentially expressed in the renal cortex: annexin A1 (up-regulated; relative intensity: 1.316 ± 0.321 versus 2.312 ± 0.283), glutamate-cysteine ligase (down-regulated; relative intensity: 3.738 ± 0.174 versus 2.645 ± 0.364) and glutathione-S transferase (down-regulated; relative intensity: 5.572 ± 0.246 versus 4.215 ± 0.411) and 21 genes differentially expressed in the renal medulla. Interestingly, few genes were differentially expressed in the kidney in the DOCA-salt model of hypertension; this may suggest that the complexity of hypertension may be the result of only a few gene-by-environment responsive events.

Baboon carboxylesterases 1 and 2: sequences, structures and phylogenetic relationships with human and other primate carboxylesterases.

BACKGROUND: Carboxylesterase (CES) is predominantly responsible for the detoxification of a wide range of drugs and narcotics, and catalyze several reactions in cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism. Studies of the genetic and biochemical properties of primate CES may contribute to an improved understanding of human disease, including atherosclerosis, obesity and drug addiction, for which non-human primates serve as useful animal models. METHODS: We cloned and sequenced baboon CES1 and CES2 and used in vitro and in silico methods to predict protein secondary and tertiary structures, and examined evolutionary relationships for these enzymes with other primate and mouse CES orthologs. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: We found that baboon CES1 and CES2 proteins retained extensive similarity with human CES1 and CES2, shared key structural features reported for human CES1, and showed family specific sequences consistent with their multimeric and monomeric subunit structures respectively.