Effect of dapagliflozin on COVID-19 infection and risk of hospitalization.

BACKGROUND: Dapagliflozin has been proposed as a potential treatment for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) by reducing cytokine production and inflammation. However, there are limited data on its effectiveness. We aimed to evaluate the impact of dapagliflozin on COVID-19 severity (including hospitalization risk, ICU admission, in-hospital death and progression to severe COVID-19) and its potential on susceptibility to COVID-19 infection. METHODS: We conducted a population-based case-control study. For aim 1, we assessed COVID-19 severity in cases (positive PCR patients requiring hospitalization) and matched controls (negative PCR patients or positive PCR patients not requiring hospitalization). For aim 2, we compared positive PCR cases (hospitalized and non-hospitalized) with controls. Adjusted odds ratios (aORs) were calculated using a generalized linear mixed model. RESULTS: We analysed 86 602 subjects: 3060 were hospitalized cases, 26 757 were non-hospitalized cases and 56 785 were controls. Among the hospitalized COVID-19 patients, 228 were admitted to the ICU and 413 died. Dapagliflozin had no effect on the risk of hospitalization (aOR 0.98; 95% CI 0.65-1.48; P = 0.915), ICU admissions (aOR 1.21; 95% CI 0.34-4.25; P = 0.767) or in-hospital death (aOR 1.33; 95% CI 0.53-3.30; P = 0.543). Dapagliflozin reduced the risk of progression to severe COVID-19 by 35%, but this was not statistically significant (aOR 0.65; 95% CI 0.40-1.06; P = 0.086). Dapagliflozin was associated with a 30% increased risk of susceptibility to COVID-19 infection (aOR 1.31; 95% CI 1.05-1.62; P = 0.015). CONCLUSIONS: Use of dapagliflozin prior to SARS-CoV-2 infection was not associated with an increased risk of hospitalization, ICU admission, mortality or progression to severe COVID-19. However, it was associated with an increased risk of susceptibility to COVID-19 infection.

Minimal invasive fluorescence methods to quantify advanced glycation end products (AGEs) in skin and plasma of humans.

Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) are non-enzymatic modifications of proteins and lipids, which are spontaneously produced in the body in relation with several human diseases. Their relevance on protein functions alteration, either structural or enzymatic is under study, but their value as biomarkers or predictors of disease progression and clinical outcomes is unquestionable. The heterogeneity and amplitude of these modifications make their analysis difficult, although, different methods have been developed for specific AGEs based on colorimetric reactions, immunoassays or chromatography. However, for a massive application on human population, methods based on the autofluorescence of some AGEs stand out. Several qualities of these methods such as label-free measurement, rapidity, cost-effectiveness, and minimal invasiveness make them very useful for periodic measurements in critically ill patients and for the analysis of large populations. Here we explain the rationale of these methods, and we present a step-by-step protocol and the equipment requirements to carry out the estimation of AGE content in skin and plasma. AGE plasma content and skin accumulation are temporally related, so AGE plasmatic levels are a possible predictor of skin AGE content. On the other hand, AGE skin accumulation is a surrogate or an indicator of past AGE levels in plasma and in the rest of the body. AGE levels or their variations have shown to be related with prognosis of several diseases, so they can be used as predictor biomarkers for clinicians.

Plasma miR-486-5p Expression Is Upregulated in Atrial Fibrillation Patients with Broader Low-Voltage Areas.

Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most common arrhythmia worldwide, affecting 1% of the population over 60 years old. The incidence and prevalence of AF are increasing globally, representing a relevant health problem, suggesting that more advanced strategies for predicting risk stage are highly needed. miRNAs mediate several processes involved in AF. Our aim was to identify miRNAs with a prognostic value as biomarkers in patients referred for AF ablation and its association with LVA extent, based on low-voltage area (LVA) maps. In this study, we recruited 44 AF patients referred for catheter ablation. We measured the expression of 84 miRNAs in plasma from peripheral blood in 3 different groups based on LVA extent. Expression analysis showed that miR-486-5p was significantly increased in patients with broader LVA (4-fold, p = 0.0002; 5-fold, p = 0.0001). Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis showed that miR-486-5p expression could predict atrium LVA (AUC, 0.8958; p = 0.0015). Also, miR-486-5p plasma levels were associated with AF-type (AUC, 0.7137; p = 0.0453). In addition, miR-486-5p expression was positively correlated with LVA percentage, left atrial (LA) area, and LA volume (r = 0.322, p = 0.037; r = 0.372, p = 0.015; r = 0.319, p = 0.045, respectively). These findings suggest that miR-486-5p expression might have prognostic significance in LVA extent in patients with AF.

Role of Soluble ST2 Biomarker in Predicting Recurrence of Atrial Fibrillation after Electrical Cardioversion or Pulmonary Vein Isolation.

This study aims to determine the predictive value of the soluble suppression of tumorigenicity 2 (sST2) biomarker in atrial fibrillation (AF) recurrence. This prospective, observational study included patients with AF referred for electrical cardioversion (ECV) or pulmonary vein isolation (PVI) procedures. Baseline characteristics were collected, and sST2 was determined at baseline and at 3 and 6 months of follow-up. sST2 was determined at baseline in a matched control group. Left atrial voltage mapping was performed in patients undergoing PVI. The sST2 maximal predictive capacity of AF recurrence was at the 3-month FU in the cohort of patients undergoing ECV with respect to 6-month AF recurrence with an AUC of 0.669, a cut-off point of 15,511 pg/mL, a sensitivity of 60.97%, and a specificity of 69.81%. The ROC curve of the sST2 biomarker at baseline and 3 months in the cohort of patients undergoing PVI showed AUCs of 0.539 and 0.490, respectively. The logistic regression model identified the rhythm (AF) and the sST2 biomarker at 3 months as independent factors for recurrence at 6 months in the ECV cohort. In the logistic regression model, sST2 was not an independent factor for recurrence at 6 months of follow-up in the PVI cohort. In patients who underwent ECV, sST2 values at 3 months may provide utility to predict AF recurrence at 6 months of follow-up. In patients who underwent PVI, sST2 had no value in predicting AF recurrence at 6 months of follow-up.

Relaxin has beneficial effects on liver lipidome and metabolic enzymes.

Relaxin is an insulin-like hormone with pleiotropic protective effects in several organs, including the liver. We aimed to characterize its role in the control of hepatic metabolism in healthy rats. Sprague-Dawley rats were treated with human recombinant relaxin-2 for 2 weeks. The hepatic metabolic profile was analyzed using UHPLC-MS platforms. Hepatic gene expression of key enzymes of desaturation (Fads1/Fads2) of n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), of phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) N-methyltransferase (Pemt), of fatty acid translocase Cd36, and of glucose-6-phosphate isomerase (Gpi) were quantified by Real Time-PCR. Activation of 5'AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) was analyzed by Western Blot. Relaxin-2 significantly modified the hepatic levels of 19 glycerophospholipids, 2 saturated (SFA) and 1 monounsaturated (MUFA) fatty acids (FA), 3 diglycerides, 1 sphingomyelin, 2 aminoacids, 5 nucleosides, 2 nucleotides, 1 carboxylic acid, 1 redox electron carrier, and 1 vitamin. The most noteworthy changes corresponded to the substantially decreased lysoglycerophospholipids, and to the clearly increased FA (16:1n-7/16:0) and MUFA + PUFA/SFA ratios, suggesting enhanced desaturase activity. Hepatic gene expression of Fads1, Fads2, and Pemt, which mediates lipid balance and liver health, was increased by relaxin-2, while mRNA levels of the main regulator of hepatic FA uptake Cd36, and of the essential glycolysis enzyme Gpi, were decreased. Relaxin-2 augmented the hepatic activation of the hepatoprotector and master regulator of energy homeostasis AMPK. Relaxin-2 treatment also rised FADS1, FADS2, and PEMT gene expression in cultured Hep G2 cells. Our results bring to light the hepatic metabolic features stimulated by relaxin, a promising hepatoprotective molecule.

Diabesity in Elderly Cardiovascular Disease Patients: Mechanisms and Regulators.

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death in the world. In 2019, 550 million people were suffering from CVD and 18 million of them died as a result. Most of them had associated risk factors such as high fasting glucose, which caused 134 million deaths, and obesity, which accounted for 5.02 million deaths. Diabesity, a combination of type 2 diabetes and obesity, contributes to cardiac, metabolic, inflammation and neurohumoral changes that determine cardiac dysfunction (diabesity-related cardiomyopathy). Epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) is distributed around the myocardium, promoting myocardial inflammation and fibrosis, and is associated with an increased risk of heart failure, particularly with preserved systolic function, atrial fibrillation and coronary atherosclerosis. In fact, several hypoglycaemic drugs have demonstrated a volume reduction of EAT and effects on its metabolic and inflammation profile. However, it is necessary to improve knowledge of the diabesity pathophysiologic mechanisms involved in the development and progression of cardiovascular diseases for comprehensive patient management including drugs to optimize glucometabolic control. This review presents the mechanisms of diabesity associated with cardiovascular disease and their therapeutic implications.

Role of Sodium-Glucose Co-Transporter 2 Inhibitors in the Regulation of Inflammatory Processes in Animal Models.

Sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors, also known as gliflozins, were developed as a novel class of anti-diabetic agents that promote glycosuria through the prevention of glucose reabsorption in the proximal tubule by sodium-glucose co-transporter 2. Beyond the regulation of glucose homeostasis, they resulted as being effective in different clinical trials in patients with heart failure, showing a strong cardio-renal protective effect in diabetic, but also in non-diabetic patients, which highlights the possible existence of other mechanisms through which gliflozins could be exerting their action. So far, different gliflozins have been approved for their therapeutic use in T2DM, heart failure, and diabetic kidney disease in different countries, all of them being diseases that have in common a deregulation of the inflammatory process associated with the pathology, which perpetuates and worsens the disease. This inflammatory deregulation has been observed in many other diseases, which led the scientific community to have a growing interest in the understanding of the biological processes that lead to or control inflammation deregulation in order to be able to identify potential therapeutic targets that could revert this situation and contribute to the amelioration of the disease. In this line, recent studies showed that gliflozins also act as an anti-inflammatory drug, and have been proposed as a useful strategy to treat other diseases linked to inflammation in addition to cardio-renal diseases, such as diabetes, obesity, atherosclerosis, or non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. In this work, we will review recent studies regarding the role of the main sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors in the control of inflammation.

The Role of Fatty Acid-Binding Protein 4 in the Characterization of Atrial Fibrillation and the Prediction of Outcomes after Catheter Ablation.

Aims: The utility of biomarkers in characterizing atrial cardiomyopathy is unclear. We aim to test the ability of biomarkers of fibrosis (galectin-3 (Gal-3)) and adiposity (fatty acid-binding protein 4 (FABP4) and leptin) to predict: (1) the presence of low-voltage areas (LVA) in the electroanatomic voltage mapping; and (2) the recurrence of atrial fibrillation (AF) after pulmonary vein isolation (PVI). Methods: Patients referred for PVI were enrolled. Areas of bipolar voltage < 0.5 mV were considered as LVA. An aggregate score incorporating AF pattern (paroxysmal, persistent and long-standing persistent) and peripheral levels of FABP4 (>20 ng/mL) was developed. Results: 299 patients were included. AF was paroxysmal in 100 (33%), persistent in 130 (43%) and long-standing persistent in 69 (23%). Multivariable analysis revealed age, left atrium area, and the proposed score as independent predictors of LVA. During a mean follow-up period of 972 ± 451 days, freedom from AF recurrence was 63%. The score incorporating AF pattern and FABP4 levels accurately predicted freedom from AF recurrence, stratifying risk into ranges from 28% (score of 1) to 68% (score of 3). Cox regression models identified the score including AF pattern + FABP4 as the best model for AF recurrence (hazard ratio 2.32; 95% CI, 1.19 to 4.5; p = 0.014). Conclusions: Traditional clinical classification of atrial cardiomyopathy may be improved by markers of adiposity (FABP4). The combination allows better prediction of the presence of LVA and AF recurrence post-PVI. Gal-3 provided no added predictive value.

Ticagrelor or Clopidogrel After an Acute Coronary Syndrome in the Elderly: A Propensity Score Matching Analysis from 16,653 Patients Treated with PCI Included in Two Large Multinational Registries.

PURPOSE: Higher risk of bleeding with ticagrelor over clopidogrel in elderly patients with acute coronary syndrome (ACS) who underwent percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) has been suggested. We assessed the incidence of major bleedings (MB), reinfarction (re-MI), and all-cause death to evaluate safety and efficacy of ticagrelor versus clopidogrel in such population. METHODS: Real-world registries RENAMI and BleeMACS were merged. The pooled cohort was divided into two groups, clopidogrel versus ticagrelor. Statistical analysis considered patients <75 versus ≥75 years old. Endpoints were BARC 3-5 MB, re-MI, and all-cause death at 1-year follow-up. The study included 16,653 patients (13,153 < 75 and 3500 ≥ 75 years). Ticagrelor was underused in elderly patients (16.3% versus 20.8%, P < 0.001). Using propensity score matching (PSM), two treatment groups of 1566 patients were included in the final analysis. RESULTS: Ticagrelor was able to prevent re-MI (hazard ratio [HR], 0.31; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.2-0.6; P < 0.001) and all-cause death (HR, 0.60; 95% CI, 0.4-0.9; P = 0.026) irrespective of age. In patients ≥75 years, ticagrelor reduced all-cause death (HR, 0.32; 95% CI, 0.1-0.8; P = 0.012) and re-MI (HR, 0.25; 95% CI, 0.1-1.1, P = 0.072). Moreover, even with the limit of the low number of events, ticagrelor did not significantly increase the incidence of MB (HR, 1.49; 95% CI, 0.70-3.0; P = 0.257). At multiple Cox regression, age (HR, 1.03; 95% CI, 1.02-1.05; P < 0.001) resulted an independent risk factor for bleeding. CONCLUSION: In our study, reflecting the results from two large retrospective, real-world registries, Ticagrelor did not significantly increase MB compared with clopidogrel in elderly patients with ACS treated with PCI, while significantly improving 1-year survival. Further studies on elderly patients are suggested.

Prognostic impact of hyponatraemia and hypernatraemia at admission and discharge in heart failure patients with preserved, mid-range and reduced ejection fraction.

BACKGROUND: Hyponatraemia is common in patients with acute heart failure (HF). AIMS: To determine the impact of sodium disturbances on mortality and readmissions in HF with reduced left ventricular ejection fraction (HFrEF), preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) and mid-range ejection fraction (HFmrEF). METHODS: This study was a prospective multicentre consecutive registry in 20 hospitals, including patients admitted due to acute HF in cardiology departments. Sodium <135 mmol/L was considered hyponatraemia, >145 mmol/L hypernatraemia and 135-145 mmol/L normal. RESULTS: A total of 1309 patients was included. Mean age was 72.0 ± 11.9 years, and 810 (61.9%) were male. Mean serum sodium level was 138.6 ± 4.7 mmol/L at hospital admission and 138.1 ± 4.1 mmol/L at discharge. The evolution of sodium levels was: normal-at-admission/normal-at-discharge 941 (71.9%), abnormal-at-admission/normal-at-discharge 127 (9.7%), normal-at-admission/abnormal-at-discharge 155 (11.8%) and abnormal-at-admission/abnormal-at-discharge 86 (6.6%). Hyponatraemia at discharge was more common in HFrEF (109 (20.7%)) than in HFpEF (79 (13.9%)) and HFmrEF (27 (12%)), P = 0.003. The prevalence of hypernatraemia at discharge was similar in the three groups: HFrEF (10 (1.9%)), HFpEF (12 (2.1%)) and HFmrEF (4 (1.9%)), P = 0.96. In multivariate analysis, abnormal sodium concentrations at hospital admission (hazard ratio (HR) 1.42, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.15-1.76, P = 0.001) and discharge (HR 1.33, 95% CI 1.08-1.64, P = 0.007) were both independently associated with increased mortality and readmissions at 12 months. CONCLUSIONS: Hyponatraemia and hypernatraemia at admission and discharge predict a poor outcome in patients with acute HF regardless of left ventricular ejection fraction. Hyponatraemia at discharge is more frequent in HFrEF than in the other groups.

Classification, prevalence, and outcomes of anticancer therapy-induced cardiotoxicity: the CARDIOTOX registry.

AIM: Cardiotoxicity (CTox) is a major side effect of cancer therapies, but uniform diagnostic criteria to guide clinical and research practices are lacking. METHODS AND RESULTS: We prospectively studied 865 patients, aged 54.7 ± 13.9; 16.3% men, scheduled for anticancer therapy related with moderate/high CTox risk. Four groups of progressive myocardial damage/dysfunction were considered according to current guidelines: normal, normal biomarkers (high-sensitivity troponin T and N-terminal natriuretic pro-peptide), and left ventricular (LV) function; mild, abnormal biomarkers, and/or LV dysfunction (LVD) maintaining an LV ejection fraction (LVEF) ≥50%; moderate, LVD with LVEF 40-49%; and severe, LVD with LVEF ≤40% or symptomatic heart failure. Cardiotoxicity was defined as new or worsening of myocardial damage/ventricular function from baseline during follow-up. Patients were followed for a median of 24 months. Cardiotoxicity was identified in 37.5% patients during follow-up [95% confidence interval (CI) 34.22-40.8%], 31.6% with mild, 2.8% moderate, and 3.1% with severe myocardial damage/dysfunction. The mortality rate in the severe CTox group was 22.9 deaths per 100 patients-year vs. 2.3 deaths per 100 patients-year in the rest of groups, hazard ratio of 10.2 (95% CI 5.5-19.2) (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The majority of patients present objective data of myocardial injury/dysfunction during or after cancer therapy. Nevertheless, severe CTox, with a strong prognostic relationship, was comparatively rare. This should be reflected in protocols for clinical and research practices.

Conventional single-chamber pacemakers versus transcatheter pacing systems in a "real world" cohort of patients: A comparative prospective single-center study.

PURPOSE: Despite the developments in conventional transvenous pacemakers (VVI-PM), the procedure is still associated with significant complications. Although there are no prospective clinical trials that compared VVI-PM with transcatheter pacemaker systems (TPS). METHODS: This is a prospective, observational, single-center study that included all patients with an indication for a single-chamber pacemaker implant within a 4-year period. All clinical, ECG and echocardiographic characteristics at implant, electrical parameters, associated complications and mortality were analyzed. A Cox survival model and a Bayesian cohort analysis were performed for differences in complication rates between groups. RESULTS: There were 443 patients included (198 TPS and 245 VVI-PM). The mean age was 81.5 years (TPS group, 79.2 ± 6.6 years; VVI-PM group, 83.5 ± 8.9 years). There was a male predominance in TPS group (123, 62.1% vs. 67, 27.3%; p < 0.001). The presence of systolic dysfunction and renal insufficiency were more frequent in VVI-PM group than in TPS patients. Mean follow-up was 22.3 ± 15.9 months. In a multivariable paired data the TPS group presented fewer complications than VVI-PM group (HR = 0.39 [0.15-0.98], p-value 0.013), but major complications were not different (6, 3% vs 14, 5.6% respectively, p = 0.1761). There was no difference in the mortality rate between the groups. The TPS group had less risk than VVI-PM group to have a complication, with a 96% of probability. CONCLUSIONS: TPS patients had a lower overall complication rate than VVI-PM patients including matched-pair samples using a Bayesian analysis. These results confirm the safety profile of TPS in clinical practice.

Inflammatory and lipid regulation by cholinergic activity in epicardial stromal cells from patients who underwent open-heart surgery.

The modulation of acetylcholine (ACh) release by botulinum toxin injection into epicardial fat diminishes atrial fibrillation (AF) recurrence. These results suggest an interaction between autonomic imbalance and epicardial fat as risk factors of AF. Our aim was to study the inflammatory, lipidic and fibroblastic profile of epicardial stroma from patients who underwent open-heart surgery, their regulation by cholinergic activity and its association with AF. We performed in vitro and ex vivo assays from paired subcutaneous and epicardial stromal cells or explants from 33 patients. Acute ACh effects in inflammation and lipid-related genes were analysed by qPCR, in intracellular calcium mobilization were performed by Fluo-4 AM staining and in neutrophil migration by trans-well assays. Chronic ACh effects on lipid accumulation were visualized by AdipoRed. Plasma protein regulation by parasympathetic denervation was studied in vagotomized rats. Our results showed a higher pro-inflammatory profile in epicardial regarding subcutaneous stromal cells. Acute ACh treatment up-regulated monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 levels. Chronic ACh treatment improved lipid accumulation within epicardial stromal cells (60.50% [22.82-85.13] vs 13.85% [6.17-23.16], P < .001). Additionally, patients with AF had higher levels of fatty acid-binding protein 4 (1.54 ± 0.01 vs 1.47 ± 0.01, P = .005). Its plasma levels were pronouncedly declined in vagotomized rats (2.02 ± 0.21 ng/mL vs 0.65 ± 0.23 ng/mL, P < .001). Our findings support the characterization of acute or chronic cholinergic activity on epicardial stroma and its association with AF.

Average daily ischemic versus bleeding risk in patients with ACS undergoing PCI: Insights from the BleeMACS and RENAMI registries.

BACKGROUND: The risk of recurrent ischemia and bleeding after percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) for acute coronary syndrome (ACS) may vary during the first year of follow-up according to clinical presentation, and medical and interventional strategies. METHODS: BleeMACS and RENAMI are 2 multicenter registries enrolling patients with ACS treated with PCI and clopidogrel, prasugrel, or ticagrelor. The average daily ischemic and bleeding risks (ADIR and ADBR) in the first year after PCI were the primary end points. The difference between ADBR and ADIR was calculated to estimate the potential excess of bleeding/ischemic events in a given period or specific subgroup. RESULTS: A total of 19,826 patients were included. Overall, in the first year after PCI, the ADBR was 0.008085%, whereas ADIR was 0.008017% (P = .886). In the first 2 weeks ADIR was higher than ADBR (P = .013), especially in patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction or incomplete revascularization. ADIR continued to be, albeit non-significantly, greater than ADBR up to the third month, whereas ADBR became higher, although not significantly, afterward. Patients with incomplete revascularization had an excess in ischemic risk (P = .003), whereas non-ST-segment elevation ACS patients and those on ticagrelor had an excess of bleeding (P = .012 and P = .022, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: In unselected ACS patients, ADIR and ADBR occurred at similar rates within 1 year after PCI. ADIR was greater than ADBR in the first 2 weeks, especially in ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction patients and those with incomplete revascularization. In the first year, ADIR was higher than ADBR in patients with incomplete revascularization, whereas ADBR was higher in non-ST-segment elevation ACS patients and in those discharged on ticagrelor.

Myocardium Metabolism in Physiological and Pathophysiological States: Implications of Epicardial Adipose Tissue and Potential Therapeutic Targets.

The main energy substrate of adult cardiomyocytes for their contractility are the fatty acids. Its metabolism generates high ATP levels at the expense of high oxygen consumption in the mitochondria. Under low oxygen supply, they can get energy from other substrates, mainly glucose, lactate, ketone bodies, etc., but the mitochondrial dysfunction, in pathological conditions, reduces the oxidative metabolism. In consequence, fatty acids are stored into epicardial fat and its accumulation provokes inflammation, insulin resistance, and oxidative stress, which enhance the myocardium dysfunction. Some therapies focused on improvement the fatty acids entry into mitochondria have failed to demonstrate benefits on cardiovascular disorders. Oppositely, those therapies with effects on epicardial fat volume and inflammation might improve the oxidative metabolism of myocardium and might reduce the cardiovascular disease progression. This review aims at explain (a) the energy substrate adaptation of myocardium in physiological conditions, (b) the reduction of oxidative metabolism in pathological conditions and consequences on epicardial fat accumulation and insulin resistance, and (c) the reduction of cardiovascular outcomes after regulation by some therapies.

Adipokines and Inflammation: Focus on Cardiovascular Diseases.

It is well established that adipose tissue, apart from its energy storage function, acts as an endocrine organ that produces and secretes a number of bioactive substances, including hormones commonly known as adipokines. Obesity is a major risk factor for the development of cardiovascular diseases, mainly due to a low grade of inflammation and the excessive fat accumulation produced in this state. The adipose tissue dysfunction in obesity leads to an aberrant release of adipokines, some of them with direct cardiovascular and inflammatory regulatory functions. Inflammation is a common link between obesity and cardiovascular diseases, so this review will summarise the role of the main adipokines implicated in the regulation of the inflammatory processes occurring under the scenario of cardiovascular diseases.

Serelaxin (recombinant human relaxin-2) treatment affects the endogenous synthesis of long chain poly-unsaturated fatty acids and induces substantial alterations of lipidome and metabolome profiles in rat cardiac tissue.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Recombinant human relaxin-2, serelaxin, is being proved as a novel drug with therapeutic efficacy in some cardiovascular diseases, especially heart failure, a disease whose physiopathology and course are firmly correlated with important alterations in cardiac metabolism. The aim of our present work was to investigate changes in the cardiac metabolome following relaxin-2 treatment. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Sprague-Dawley rats were treated with human recombinant relaxin-2 using osmotic minipumps at a dose of 0.4 mg/kg/day for 2 weeks. Body composition was measured with a nuclear magnetic resonance imaging system seven days after surgery and on the final day of the experiment. The last two days of treatment, respiratory quotient, locomotor activity and energy expenditure were measured with a calorimetric system. The plasma levels of relaxin-2, total cholesterol, high- and low- density lipoproteins (HDL, LDL), triglycerides and the hepatic enzymes glutamic-pyruvic transaminase (GTP) and gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT) levels were analyzed. The metabolic profiling of both atria from relaxin-2-treated and control rats was carried out using two separate ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC)-Time of Flight-MS based platforms analyzing methanol and chloroform/methanol extracts combined with a UHPLC-single quadrupole-MS based platform used to analyze aminoacids and with a methanol/water extract platform that covered polar metabolites. Identified ion features in the methanol extract platform included fatty acids, acyl carnitines, bile acids, monoacylglycerophospholipids, monoetherglycerophospholipids, free sphingoid bases, and oxidized fatty acids. The chloroform / methanol extract platform provided coverage over glycerolipids, cholesterol esters, sphingolipids, diacylglycerophospholipids, and acyl-ether-glycerophospholipids. Gene expression levels of the adipokines adiponectin, leptin and nesfatin-1 in visceral adipose tissue and cardiac gene expression levels of key enzymes of desaturation and elongation of n-6 and n-3 PUFAs were assessed by Real Time-PCR. KEY RESULTS: Twenty-eight metabolites out of three hundred sixty-two were significantly altered by human relaxin-2. These included fifteen glycerophospholipids: three phosphatidylethanolamines (PE) and twelve phosphatidylcholines (PC); eight sphingolipids: three ceramides (Cer) and five sphingomyelins (SM); and also five aminoacids and one carboxylic acid. Interestingly, the majority of changes correspond to lipid classes, twelve of them polyunsaturated diacylglycerophosphatidylcholines with long acyl chains, containing mainly docosahexaenoic acid (22:6) and arachidonic acid (20:4). Atrial levels of Elovl5 (Elongation of very long chain fatty acids protein 5), Fads1 (Δ5-fatty acid desaturase) and Fads2 (Δ6-fatty acid desaturase), key enzymes of elongation and desaturation of n-6 and n-3 PUFAs like arachidonic acid and DHA, respectively, were significantly increased by relaxin-2 treatment. Atrial tissues from rats treated with relaxin-2 showed a significant increase in the mRNA levels of Srebf1, a transcription factor that activates the gene expression of Elovl5, Fads1 and Fads2. The treatment with relaxin-2 significantly decreased the visceral fat mRNA expression levels of adiponectin, leptin and nesfatin-1, adipokines known to exert an important influence on the regulation of cardiovascular function. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS: Serelaxin (human recombinant relaxin-2) treatment induces significant changes in cardiac major components of the membrane lipid bilayer such as glycerophospholipids and sphingolipids, known to have structural roles but also very relevant regulatory effects in cardiac function. Serelaxin induced also modifications in several aminoacids of high influence in cardiac energy metabolism regulation. Our results highlight the need to further understand the role of relaxin-2 in the regulation of cardiac energy metabolism, in the context of the therapeutic strategies for the treatment of cardiometabolic pathologies as heart failure.

Quantitative assessment of left ventricular size and function in cardiac transplant recipients: Side-by-side comparison of real time two-dimensional echocardiography, contrast-enhanced two-dimensional echocardiography, three-dimensional echocardiography, and contrast-enhanced three-dimensional echocardiography as compared to magnetic resonance imaging.

INTRODUCTION: We evaluate the ability of 2D non-contrast-enhanced echocardiography (CE-echo), 2DCE-echo, 3D-echo, 3D non-CE-echo, and 3DCE-echo to evaluate allograft function and dimensions in orthotropic heart transplantation (OHT). Cardiac resonance (CMR) was used as reference. METHODS: Twenty six consecutive OHT-recipients were prospectively recruited. Bland-Altman, Spearman rank, and concordance-correlation coefficients (CCC) were determined. RESULTS: Good CCCs were found between the four modalities and CMR for ejection fraction (r ≥ 0.72/P < 0.001; r ≥ 0.77/ P < 0.001; r ≥ 0.51/ P < 0.23; r ≥ 0.75/ P < 0.001, respectively). Highest intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) was for 2D CE-echo(CCC = 0.77). End-diastolic volume(EDV) measurements statistically differed when 2D non-CE-echo, 2DCE-echo, and 3D non-CE-echo were compared with the cross-sectional imaging modalities, but they did not differ significantly from 3DCE-echo. End-systolic volume (ESV) and stroke volume (SV) differed statistically between the four modalities; however, SV measured by CMR and 3DCE-echo were comparable. Overall, 2D non-CE-echo, 2DCE-echo, and 3D non-CE-echo showed lower mean EDV, ESV, and SV than CMR. ICC was that of the ESV variable in the 4 techniques, with the values of the ICC of the 3DCE-echo technique superior to the rest. Overall, the best CCC were found for 3DCE(r = 0.88, 0.92 and 0.76 for EDV, ESV and SV, respectively). CONCLUSION: Routine use of 3DCE-echo may allow more comprehensive cardiac assessment in cardiac transplant recipients.

Relevance of Dementia in Atrial Fibrillation Patients within a Specific European Health Care Area.

INTRODUCTION: Atrial fibrillation might increase the risk of dementia. We aim to test the hypothesis that dementia could reclassify the actual risk of stroke and death predicted by the CHA2DS2-VASc in patients with atrial fibrillation (AF). METHODS: A prospective study performed in a specific health care area. RESULTS: From our health care area (n = 348,985), throughout 2013, AF was codified in 7,990 (2.08%). Mean age was 76.83 ± 10.5, mean CHA2DS2-VASc = 3.5, 4,056 (50.8%) were females and 287 (3.6%) were diagnosed to have dementia. Patients with dementia were older and presented a higher rate of all the components of the CHA2DS2-VASc-expect vasculopathy. Differences in overall mortality were observed but not in stroke and haemorrhagic events. After propensity score matched analysis, dementia was independently associated with all-cause mortality. Addition of dementia to CHA2DS2-VASc reclassified 7.7 and 16.6% of the cohort with regard to thromboembolic events and death risk respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with dementia presented a more adverse risk profile, with significant differences in all-cause mortality.