Apocarotenoids are allosteric effectors of a dimeric plant glycosyltransferase involved in defense and lignin formation.

Glycosyltransferases are nature's versatile tools to tailor the functionalities of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and small molecules by transferring sugars. Prominent substrates are hydroxycoumarins such as scopoletin, which serve as natural plant protection agents. Similarly, C13-apocarotenoids, which are oxidative degradation products of carotenoids/xanthophylls, protect plants by repelling pests and attracting pest predators. We show that C13-apocarotenoids interact with the plant glycosyltransferase NbUGT72AY1 and induce conformational changes in the enzyme catalytic center ultimately reducing its inherent UDP-α-d-glucose glucohydrolase activity and increasing its catalytic activity for productive hydroxycoumarin substrates. By contrast, C13-apocarotenoids show no effect on the catalytic activity toward monolignol lignin precursors, which are competitive substrates. In vivo studies in tobacco plants (Nicotiana benthamiana) confirmed increased glycosylation activity upon apocarotenoid supplementation. Thus, hydroxycoumarins and apocarotenoids represent specialized damage-associated molecular patterns, as they each provide precise information about the plant compartments damaged by pathogen attack. The molecular basis for the C13-apocarotenoid-mediated interplay of two plant protective mechanisms and their function as allosteric enhancers opens up potential applications of the natural products in agriculture and pharmaceutical industry.

Induction of PR-10 genes and metabolites in strawberry plants in response to Verticillium dahliae infection.

BACKGROUND: The soil-borne vascular pathogen Verticillium dahliae causes severe wilt symptoms in a wide range of plants including strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa). To enhance our understanding of the effects of V. dahliae on the growth and development of F. × ananassa, the expression patterns of 21 PR-10 genes were investigated by qPCR analysis and metabolite changes were determined by LC-MS in in vitro F. × ananassa plants upon pathogen infection. RESULTS: The expression patterns of the 21 isoforms showed a wide range of responses. Four PR-10 genes were highly induced in leaves upon pathogen infection while eight members were significantly up-regulated in roots. A simultaneously induced expression in leaves and roots was detected for five PR-10 genes. Interestingly, two isoforms were expressed upon infection in all three tissues (leaves, roots and stems) while no induction was detected for two other members. Accumulation of antifungal catechin and epicatechin was detected upon pathogen infection in roots and stems at late stages, while caffeic acid and citric acid were observed only in infected roots. Production of abscisic acid, salicylic acid, jasmonic acid (JA), gibberellic acid and indole acetic acid (IAA) was induced in infected leaves and stems at early stages. IAA and JA were the sole hormones to be ascertained in infected roots at late stages. CONCLUSIONS: The induction of several PR-10 genes upon infection of strawberry plants with V. dahliae suggest a role of PR-10 genes in the defense response against this pathogen. Production of phytohormones in the early stages of infection and antifungal metabolites in late stages suppose that they are implicated in this response. The results may possibly improve the control measures of the pathogen.

Premature and ectopic anthocyanin formation by silencing of anthocyanidin reductase in strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa).

Strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa) is a fruit crop with a distinct biphasic flavonoid biosynthesis. Whereas, in the immature receptacle, high levels of proanthocyanidins accumulate, which are associated with herbivore deterrence and pathogen defense, the prominent color-giving anthocyanins are primarily produced in ripe 'fruits' helping to attract herbivores for seed dispersal. Here, constitutive experimental down-regulation of one branch of proanthocyanidin biosynthesis was performed. As a result, the proportion of epicatechin monomeric units within the proanthocyanidin polymer chains was reduced, but this was not the case for the epicatechin starter unit. Shortened chain lengths of proanthocyanidins were also observed. All enzymatic activities for the production of color-giving anthocyanins were already present in unripe fruits at levels allowing a striking red anthocyanin phenotype in unripe fruits of the RNAi silencing lines. An immediately recognizable phenotype was also observed for the stigmata of flowers, which is another epicatechin-forming tissue. Thus, the down-regulation of anthocyanidin reductase (ANR) induced a redirection of the proanthocyanidin pathway, leading to premature and ectopic anthocyanin biosynthesis via enzymatic glycosylation as the alternative pathway. This redirection is also seen in flavonol biosynthesis, which is paralleled by higher pollen viability in silencing lines. ANRi transgenic lines of strawberry provide a versatile tool for the study of the biological functions of proanthocyanidins.

Comparative analysis of antioxidant activities of fourteen mentha essential oils and their components.

The essential oils of 14 species and hybrids, respectively, of the genus Mentha were examined for their antioxidant capacity in the ABTS (2,2'-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)) assay and in a lipid-peroxidation (LPO) assay. The ABTS(.+) -scavenging capacity of pure essential-oil components and mixtures of them was also tested. In both assays, Mentha×dumetorum (classification not fully confirmed), Mentha suaveolens, and Mentha×villosa (classification not fully confirmed) showed the highest antioxidant capacity, which was ascribed to the components germacrene D, piperitone oxide, and piperitenone oxide. The high antioxidant activity in the LPO assay of the two hybrids Mentha×gracilis and, to a lower degree, of Mentha×dalmatica (classification not fully confirmed) was ascribed to their high contents of cis-ocimene and ß-caryophyllene. Of the pure components tested (germacrene D, piperitone oxide, and piperitenone oxide were not tested, as not commercially available), only cis-ocimene showed a distinct antioxidant effect, whereas dihydrocarvone and linalool had pro-oxidant effects in the ABTS assay.

Evaluation of different coloured carrot cultivars on antioxidative capacity based on their carotenoid and phenolic contents.

We compared five new carrot cultivars with a conventional cultivar in consideration of their content of carotenoids, phenolics and according antioxidative capacity. We chose the following cultivars: orange, white, yellow, red, solid-coloured purple and purple with an orange core. Examinations were conducted over two cultivation periods (2003 and 2004). The white, yellow and solid-coloured purple cultivars showed quite low contents of carotenoids, but the solid-coloured purple contained most phenolic compounds. The red cultivar was the only that contained lycopene. The content of carotenoids varied slightly between the two years; alpha-carotene showed noteworthy differences in the orange cultivar and the purple cultivar with an orange core. The higher alpha-carotene content resulted in a higher antioxidative capacity. Also, the lycopene content in the red cultivar was higher in 2004 than in 2003, which again lead to an increased antioxidative capacity. In the case of phenolics, higher values were found for the purple-coloured cultivars in 2004, which only in the case of the purple cultivar with an orange core, however, led to a higher antioxidative capacity.