The Self-Efficacy of Physical Education Teachers to Teach Students With Disabilities: A Systematic Review of Literature.

The purpose of this article is to examine the content of previously published empirical literature utilizing self-efficacy theory with regard to physical education teachers' perceived self-confidence to teach students with disabilities in general physical education. Keyword searches were used to identify relevant literature from electronic databases published from 2000 to 2022. Twenty-four articles, from 11 countries, met all inclusion criteria, and relevant data regarding participants, theory, measurement, research design, and dependent variables were extracted. Of the 24 studies, nine were survey validation, eight were experimental, six were cross-sectional, and one was mixed-methods design. Major findings across the examined studies indicate that teachers' perceptions of training, amount of experience, and support from personnel significantly influence their self-efficacy toward teaching students with disabilities.

U.S. Physical Activity Para Report Card for Children and Adolescents With Disabilities.

The U.S. Report Card on Physical Activity for Children and Youth has tracked 10 physical activity (PA) indicators common to the Active Healthy Kids Global Matrix since 2014. This article expands on the U.S. report cards by presenting PA indicator assessments among children and adolescents with disabilities. Grades for indicators were assigned based on a search of peer-reviewed articles presenting nationally representative data. The Global Matrix 3.0 benchmarks and grading framework guided the process. Grades for overall PA, sedentary behaviors, organized sports, and school were F, D+, D+, and D, respectively. Insufficient evidence existed to assign grades to the remaining six indicators. There is a need in the United States for targeted PA promotion strategies that are specific to children and adolescents with disabilities. Without a commitment to this effort across sectors and settings, the low grades identified in this para report card are expected to remain.

"They're Either Going to Find Ways to Include You or They're Just Kind of Not": Experiences of Students With Orthopedic Impairments in Integrated Physical Education.

This study explored the experiences of students with orthopedic impairments in integrated physical education (PE) classes. An interpretative phenomenological analysis research approach was used, and six students with orthopedic impairments (age = 10-14 years) served as participants. Data sources were semistructured, audiotaped interviews and reflective interview notes. Based on data analysis, three themes were developed-"Without it, they probably would like, just treat me normal," visibility, disclosure, and expectations; "I sit out," limited participation and a lack of modifications/accommodations; and "PE doesn't feel great," social interactions and perception of self. The experiences portrayed throughout these themes highlight the marginalization and lack of access that the participants encountered in their integrated PE classes. The findings indicated that PE professionals working with students with orthopedic impairments may benefit from reflecting on personal biases and their instructional practices in an effort to improve the quality of PE experiences for these students.

Absent, Incapable, and "Normal": Understanding the Inclusiveness of Visually Impaired Students' Experiences in Integrated Physical Education.

The purpose of this study was to examine the inclusiveness of visually impaired youths' experiences in integrated physical education. An experiential qualitative research approach was utilized, and 22 visually impaired youth (age 12-17 years) acted as participants. Data sources included one-on-one Zoom interviews, written responses to long-answer prompts, and reflexive interview notes. Data were analyzed using a reflexive thematic analysis approach, and three themes were constructed: (a) I'm not there, so how could I: The absent person; (b) I can't see, so I can't do it: The incapable person; and (c) It'd be nice to feel like everyone else: The "normal" person. Participants described that feelings of inclusion were unavailable to them and that feeling, and being viewed as, absent, incapable, and (not) "normal" highlighted this unavailability.

Impact of weight and disability status on bullying victimisation and perpetration among youth.

AIM: The purpose of this analysis was to examine the influence of weight and disability status on rates of bullying victimisation and perpetration among youth. METHODS: Data from the 2016 National Survey of Children's Health, which included 2716 youth (aged 10-17) with and 23 195 without disabilities in the USA were utilised. Parent-reported measures of height and weight, bullying perpetration and victimisation, and demographic covariates analysed. Descriptive statistics, and multivariable logistic regressions with outcomes of bullying perpetration and victimisation, were generated. RESULTS: In the multivariate analysis, overweight (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 1.26, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.04-1.52), obesity (aOR = 2.25, 95% CI 1.83-2.77) and having a disability (aOR = 3.25, 95% CI 2.69-3.92) were related to greater odds of bully victimisation. Both obesity (aOR = 1.62, 95% CI 1.10-2.74) and disability (aOR = 2.74, 95% CI 2.00-3.75) were also related to greater odds of bully perpetration in the multivariate model; overweight status was not related to bully perpetration. CONCLUSIONS: Weight status was identified as a characteristic that may increase the risk of bullying victimisation, above and beyond disability. This analysis helps identify that youth with disabilities who are overweight or obese have greater risk factors for bullying and are in need of interventions to ameliorate bullying.

Running Biomechanics of Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Research examining gait biomechanics of persons with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has grown significantly in recent years and has demonstrated that persons with ASD walk at slower self-selected speeds and with shorter strides, wider step widths, and reduced lower extremity range of motion and moments compared to neurotypical controls. In contrast to walking, running has yet to be examined in persons with ASD. The purpose of this study was to examine lower extremity running biomechanics in adolescents (13-18-year-olds) with ASD and matched (age, sex, and body mass index (BMI)) neurotypical controls. Three-dimensional kinematics and ground reaction forces (GRFs) were recorded while participants ran at two matched speeds: self-selected speed of adolescents with ASD and at 3.0 m/s. Sagittal and frontal plane lower extremity biomechanics and vertical GRF waveforms were compared using two-way analyses of variances (ANOVAs) via statistical parametric mapping (SPM). Adolescents with ASD ran with reduced stride length at self-selected speed (0.29 m) and reduced vertical displacement (2.1 cm), loading-propulsion GRFs (by 14.5%), propulsion plantarflexion moments (18.5%), loading-propulsion hip abduction moments (44.4%), and loading knee abduction moments (69.4%) at both speeds. Running at 3.0 m/s increased sagittal plane hip and knee moments surrounding initial contact (both 10.4%) and frontal plane knee angles during midstance (2.9 deg) and propulsion (2.8 deg) compared to self-selected speeds. Reduced contributions from primarily the ankle plantarflexion but also knee abduction and hip abduction moments likely reduced the vertical GRF and displacement. As differences favored reduced loading, youth with ASD can safely be encouraged to engage in running as a physical activity.

Physical Activity Among Children with Visual Impairments, Siblings, and Parents: Exploring Familial Factors.

INTRODUCTION: Moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) is associated with positive physical and psychological health outcomes, yet youth with visual impairments tend to not to engage in sufficient MVPA. The purposes of this study were to (a) examine how familial factors were associated with MVPA among youth with visual impairments, their siblings, and parents and (b) examine the daily MVPA correlation among these family members. METHODS: Twenty-two familial triads, including one child with a visual impairment, participated in this study. Accelerometers were used to measure MVPA and individual and familial factors were reported via questionnaire. RESULTS: Of the individual and familial factors measured, only family member role significantly predicted MVPA (ß = .43, p < .01), as parents accumulated significantly more activity than their children (f2 = .22). The MVPA of children with visual impairments and their siblings were positively correlated (r = .39), while small negative relationships were found between MVPA of parents and children with and without visual impairments (r = - .16; r = - .33, respectively). DISCUSSION: In contrast with earlier findings, parents in the current study were significantly more active than their children with or without visual impairments. Potential reasons for this difference included the homogeneity of the sample, including a relatively high mean income level and parent education, which may have alleviated some typically reported barriers to parental MVPA. Future inquiries in this area should examine individual- and family-level factors concurrently to better understand their impact on MVPA within the familial triad.

Barriers, Expectancy-Value Beliefs, and Physical Activity Engagement Among Adults With Visual Impairments.

The purpose of this inquiry was to examine the relationship between barriers to physical activity, expectancy-value variables, and physical activity engagement among adults with visual impairments. Using a descriptive correlational approach, a sample of 214 adults with visual impairments (Mage = 43.14, SD = 13.67) completed questionnaires pertaining to barriers to physical activity, expectancy-value beliefs about physical activity, and physical activity engagement. Data were analyzed via correlation and hierarchical regression. The final regression model explained 20.30% of variance in physical activity (p < .001). Intrinsic value (ß = 0.26, p = .01) and expectancy beliefs (ß = 0.33, p < .001) each emerged as significant predictors of physical activity engagement, which suggests that expectancy-value theory may have some utility for investigating the physical activity engagement of individuals with visual impairments. However, the lack of significant contribution of other variables such as attainment and utility values, as well as barriers factors, underscores the need for additional research in this area.

Twenty-Four-Hour Movement Guidelines and Body Weight in Youth.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the prevalence of youth meeting the 24-hour healthy movement guidelines (ie, ≥60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, ≤2 hours of screen time, age-appropriate sleep duration), and which combination of meeting these guidelines was most associated with bodyweight status, in a nationally representative US sample. STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional data from the 2016-2017 National Survey of Children's Health were used. A multinomial regression model of body weight status was generated (underweight, overweight, obese vs healthy weight) and then stratified by sex. Analyses were adjusted for potential confounders. RESULTS: The sample (n = 30 478) was 50.4% female, 52.4% white, and the mean age was 13.85 ± 2.28 years; 15% percent were obese and 15.2% were overweight. Overall, 9.4% met all 3 of the 24-hour healthy movement guidelines, 43.6% met 2, 37.9% met 1, and 9.1% met none. Meeting zero guidelines (vs 3) was associated with the greatest likelihood of overweight (aOR, 1.85; 95% CI, 1.31-2.61), and obesity (aOR, 4.25; 95% CI, 2.87-6.31). Females (aOR, 4.97; 95% CI, 2.59-9.53) had higher odds of obesity than males (aOR, 3.99; 95% CI, 2.49-6.40) when zero (vs 3) guidelines were met. Meeting the moderate-to-vigorous physical activity guideline, either alone or in combination with screen time or sleep duration (vs all 3), was associated with the lowest odds for overweight and obesity in the full sample. CONCLUSION: Meeting all movement guidelines was associated with the lowest risk for obesity, particularly in females. Meeting the moderate-to-vigorous physical activity guideline may be a priority to prevent overweight and obesity in youth.

Extracurricular Activities and Bullying Among Children and Adolescents with Disabilities.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between participation in extracurricular activities and bullying perpetration and victimization among children and adolescents with disabilities. METHODS: A nationally representative sample of 1906 children with and 15,901 children without disabilities and 1782 adolescents with and 15,885 adolescents without disabilities from the 2016 National Survey of Children's Health was utilized. Parent-reported responses pertaining to bullying perpetration and victimization and extracurricular engagement were analyzed. Separate multilevel logistic regression analyses were conducted for children and adolescents, and separate analyses were conducted with a full sample of children as well as with a subset of children with disabilities. RESULTS: A nationally representative sample of 1906 children with and 15,901 children without disabilities and 1782 adolescents with and 15,885 adolescents without disabilities from the 2016 National Survey of Children's Health was utilized. Parent-reported responses pertaining to bullying perpetration and victimization and extracurricular engagement were analyzed. Results indicated that extracurricular engagement can reduce the likelihood of experiencing bullying victimization among adolescences with disabilities. However, extracurricular engagement was not associated with lower odds of bullying perpetration. CONCLUSIONS FOR PRACTICE: These findings contribute to our understanding of the role extracurricular engagement can play in bullying behaviors among youth with disabilities. Similar to children without disabilities, it appears that engagement in extracurricular activities is significantly associated with lower odds of experiencing bullying victimization among those with disabilities. Conversely, the positive effects of extracurricular involvement on bullying perpetration risk was not evident in this current study.

Proportions of youth with visual impairments meeting 24-hr movement guidelines.

BACKGROUND: Recent movement behaviour guidelines prescribe the optimal time spent in physical activity, screen time, and sleep across a 24-hr period. The proportion of youth with visual impairments meeting 0, 1, 2, or all 3 of these 24 movement guidelines is unknown. The primary purpose of this observational, cross-sectional analysis was to examine the proportions of youth with visual impairments in the United States who partially or fully meet the physical activity, screen time, and sleep duration guidelines. A secondary purpose of this analysis was to examine whether demographic variables were associated with the odds of youth with visual impairments meeting these guidelines. METHODS: This study included 561 youth with visual impairments from the 2016 to 2017 National Survey of Children's Health (NSCH). Accounting for the NSCH sampling plan, Complex Samples was used to estimate the prevalence of meeting 24-hr movement guidelines, and a multinomial logistic regression analysis was conducted to examine the odds ratio of guidelines met across different demographic factors. RESULTS: Of the participants in this study, 18.7%, 50.7%, and 73.2% met physical activity, sleep, and screen time guidelines, respectively. Just 5.8% of the sample met all three of the 24-hr movement guidelines, whereas 10.6% did not meet any of the three guidelines. CONCLUSIONS: The proportion of the sample meeting of all three guidelines was low, thus depriving the majority of this population of the physiological and psychological health benefits of meeting each guideline. Moreover, the study identifies physical inactivity as a key risk factor that requires attention in this population.

Socialization Experiences of First-Year Adapted Physical Education Teachers With a Master's Degree.

The purpose of this study was to examine the meaning that first-year adapted physical education teachers with a master's degree ascribed to their occupational socialization experiences. An interpretative phenomenological analysis research approach was used, and occupational socialization theory was adopted as the theoretical framework. Five teachers participated in this study. The sources of data were a semistructured focus group interview, semistructured one-to-one interviews, and reflective interview notes. Thematic development involved a three-step analysis process informed by the research approach. Three themes were constructed: (a) interactions with individuals with disabilities and activity experiences, (b) recruitment of adapted physical education teacher education students, and (c) graduate training and initial workplace experiences. The constructed themes provide unique insight into how teachers are socialized into adapted physical education and the meaning they ascribe to various socialization experiences, such as the limited impact that interactions with individuals with disabilities had on the decision to pursue this career.

"My Eyes Have Nothing to Do With How My Legs Move": Individuals With Visual Impairments' Experiences With Learning to Run.

The purpose of this study was to describe the reflections of adults with visual impairments about learning to run during K-12 physical education. An interpretative phenomenological analysis research approach was used, and eight adults (age 22-35 years) with visual impairments served as participants. Primary data sources were semistructured, audiotaped telephone interviews and reflective interview notes. Based on a thematic data analysis process, two themes were developed: (a) "I wouldn't expect anything better from you": running instruction in physical education and (b) "You look like the guy in the crosswalk signal": making up for the shortcomings of physical education. The narratives portraying these themes highlight the lack of instruction that took place in physical education, and the fact that no running instruction occurred at all. These findings indicate that professionals working with individuals with visual impairments should use instructional strategies that will allow for maximum access to learning fundamental movement skills such as running.

Mindfulness, Contact Anxiety, and Attitudes Toward Students With Visual Impairments Among Certified Adapted Physical Educators.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between interpersonal/intrapersonal mindfulness, contact anxiety, and attitudes toward students with visual impairments among certified adapted physical educators. Participants included 115 certified adapted physical educators who completed a 31-item online survey, composed of a 10-item demographic questionnaire, a 14-item mindfulness in teaching scale, a four-item intergroup anxiety scale, and a three-item attitude scale. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that intrapersonal mindfulness was a negative predictor of contact anxiety (ß = -0.26, p = .007) and contact anxiety negatively predicted attitudes (ß = -0.22, p = .02). A mediation analysis revealed that intrapersonal mindfulness had an indirect effect on attitudes through contact anxiety, b = 0.09, SE = 0.05, 95% confidence interval [0.006, 0.22]. Collectively, both intrapersonal and interpersonal mindfulness appear to be responsible for the formation of attitudes, but with different underlying processes involved.

Dance Programs for School-Age Individuals With Disabilities: A Systematic Review.

The purpose of this systematic review was to examine published research literature pertaining to dance programs for school-age individuals with disabilities by describing study characteristics and major findings. Electronic database searches were conducted to identify relevant articles published between January 2008 and August 2018. Sixteen articles met all inclusion criteria, and extracted data from the articles included major findings, study design characteristics (e.g., sample size), and dance program characteristics (e.g., location of program). The methodological quality of each study was assessed using the Crowe Critical Appraisal Tool. Major findings expand on previous reviews on dance by including school-age individuals with disabilities. The critical appraisal of the articles demonstrates a gap in study design rigor between studies. Future research should aim to specify sampling strategies, use theories to frame the impact of dance programs, and provide a thorough description of ethical processes and dance classes.

Understanding the Inclusiveness of Integrated Physical Education From the Perspectives of Adults With Visual Impairments.

The purpose of this study was to examine the perspectives of individuals with visual impairment toward inclusion and the inclusiveness of their integrated physical education experiences. A retrospective, qualitative-description research approach was used, and 10 adults (age 20-35 years) with visual impairments acted as the participants. The data sources included one-on-one telephone interviews and reflective interview notes. A theoretical thematic analysis approach was used to analyze the data. Three interrelated themes were identified: "I always felt like a misfit": a missing sense of belonging, acceptance, and value; "I felt very excluded, very pushed to the side": lack of access to activity participation; and "Even though it sucked, I do agree with it": preference for integrated settings. Collectively, the participants recalled that experiencing feelings of inclusion during physical education were rare. Despite this, they expressed a perceived importance of being integrated in contexts with their peers.

The Relationships Among Perceived Organization Support, Resilience, Perceived Mattering, Emotional Exhaustion, and Job Satisfaction in Adapted Physical Educators.

Although much has been learned about the workplace experiences of physical education teachers, less is known about the unique experiences of adapted physical educators (APEs). Grounded in role socialization theory, the purpose of this study was to understand the relationships among perceived organizational support, resilience, perceived mattering, emotional exhaustion, and job satisfaction in APEs. The participants included 237 APEs from the United States, who completed an online survey. The primary data analyses included confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling. The final structural model was a good fit for the data, χ2(199) = 327.25, p < .001, χ2/df = 1.64; root-mean-square error of approximation = .052 (90% confidence interval [.042, .062], p = .354); standardized root-mean-square residual = .050; nonnormed fit index = .959; comparative-fit index = .964. The results of this study highlight the importance of developing a workplace environment in which APEs feel supported in developing perceptions of matter, reducing emotional exhaustion, and improving job satisfaction.

Reactivity to Accelerometer Measurement of Children With Visual Impairments and Their Family Members.

The purpose of this study was to examine reactivity to accelerometer measurement in children with visual impairments (VI), their sighted siblings, and their parents. A sample of 66 participants (including 22 children with VI, 22 siblings, and 22 parents) completed a demographic survey and wore triaxial accelerometers for at least 4 consecutive days for 8 hr. An analysis of covariances with repeated measures was conducted, controlling for participant gender. Children with VI had 8.1% less moderate to vigorous physical activity time on Day 1 than Days 2-4 average. Their sighted siblings and parents had 7.8% and 7.1% more moderate to vigorous physical activity time on Day 1 than their Days 2-4 average, respectively. The reactivity percentage for parents and children without VI is consistent with existing literature. However, an inverse reactivity for children with VI was found, which is a unique contribution to the literature and will have implications for researchers using accelerometers for this population.

Prevalence of Meeting Physical Activity, Screen-Time, and Sleep Guidelines Among Children and Adolescents With and Without Visual Impairments in the United States.

The purpose of this study was to compare the degree to which children and adolescents with and without visual impairments (VIs) met national physical activity, screen-time, and sleep guidelines. This observational, cross-sectional analysis of the 2016 National Survey of Children's Health focused on children (age 6-12 yr) and adolescents (age 13-17 yr) with and without VIs. The sample included 241 (weighted n = 472,127) and 17,610 (weighted n = 28,249,833) children, and 255 (weighted n = 505,401) and 17,417 (weighted n = 20,071,557) adolescents with and without VIs, respectively. Chi-square statistics were computed to examine the degree to which participants with and without VIs met health-behavior guidelines. Children (p = .02) with VIs were less likely to meet screen-time guidelines, but adolescents with VIs were not (p = .87). VI status was not associated with the likelihood of meeting physical activity or sleep guidelines (p < .05). Low numbers of children and adolescents with and without VIs meeting health-behavior guidelines warrant targeted interventions aimed at enhancing engagement.