Selective effects of focusing on spatial details in episodic future thinking for self-relevant positive events.

Mental simulations of positive future events increase their detail/vividness and plausibility, with effects on cognitive-affective processes such as anticipated and anticipatory pleasure. More recently, spatial details have been distinguished as important in increasing detail and elaborating mental scene construction. Building on this research, this study (N = 54; M age = 26.9) compared simulations of positive, self-relevant future events spatial details (i.e. people, objects, sequences of actions) with simulations focused on content details. Cross-sectionally at baseline, spatial details uniquely predicted phenomenological characteristics of future events, including anticipatory pleasure. The guided simulations increased detail and vividness, mental imagery, and pre-experiencing in both conditions. The content simulation condition did not increase content details relative to the spatial simulation condition, however, the inverse was true. Relatedly, overall detail and vividness were higher in the spatial condition, as was perceived control. The findings are discussed in relation to future thinking and mental health.

Brief inductions in episodic past or future thinking: effects on episodic detail and problem-solving.

Episodic specificity inductions, involving brief training in recollecting episodic details, have been shown to improve subsequent performance on tasks involving remembering the past, imagining the future and problem solving. The current study examined if specificity inductions targeting self-referential past or future episodic thinking would have dissociable effects on generating past and future episodic detail and problem solving. Sixty-three participants were randomised to either a past self-referential or future self-referential episodic induction. All participants also completed a control task. Participants randomised to the self-referential future thinking induction generated more episodic details on past and future narrative tasks compared to a control task, whereas participants randomised to a self-referential past thinking induction showed similar performance to the control task. When examining within-group performance of participants randomised to the past or future induction, we found some evidence of dissociable effects of inductions on narrative generation tasks, but not on problem solving outcomes. Our findings suggest that self-referential inductions may be useful for increasing episodic specificity, but that the temporal distance and direction of the induction matters. We discuss our results in the context of the potential clinical utility of this approach for populations vulnerable to autobiographical memory disruption.

Overgeneral and specific autobiographical memory predict the course of depression: an updated meta-analysis.

Impairments in retrieving event-level, specific autobiographical memories, termed overgeneral memory (OGM), are recognised as a feature of clinical depression. A previous meta-analytic review assessing how OGM predicts the course of subsequent depressive symptoms showed small effects for correlations and regression analyses when baseline depressive symptoms were controlled for. We aimed to update this study and examine whether their findings replicate given the decade of research that has been published since. A systematic literature review using the same eligibility criteria as the previous meta-analysis led to a doubling of eligible studies (32 v. 15). The results provided more precise estimates of effect sizes, and largely support the finding that OGM predicts the course of depressive symptoms. The effects were generally small, but significantly larger among clinical samples, compared to studies with non-clinical samples. There was some evidence that higher age was associated with stronger effects, and longer follow-up was associated with weaker effects. The findings on other moderating variables that were analysed were mixed. Continued research into this modifiable cognitive process may help to provide an avenue to better understand and treat highly prevalent and impactful depressive disorders.

A test of the functional avoidance hypothesis in the development of overgeneral autobiographical memory.

Overgeneral memory (OGM) refers to the failure to recall memories of specific personally experienced events, which occurs in various psychiatric disorders. One pathway through which OGM is theorized to develop is the avoidance of thinking of negative experiences, whereby cumulative avoidance may maladaptively generalize to autobiographical memory (AM) more broadly. We tested this, predicting that negative experiences would interact with avoidance to predict AM specificity. In Study 1 (N = 281), negative life events (over six months) and daily hassles (over one month) were not related to AM specificity, nor was avoidance, and no interaction was found. In Study 2 (N = 318), we revised our measurements and used an increased timeframe of 12 months for both negative life events and daily hassles. The results showed no interaction effect for negative life events, but they did show an interaction for daily hassles, whereby increased hassles and higher avoidance of thinking about them were associated with reduced AM specificity, independent of general cognitive avoidance and depressive symptoms. No evidence was found that cognitive avoidance or AM specificity moderated the effect of negative experiences on depressive symptoms. Our findings suggest that life events over 6-12 months are not associated with AM specificity, but chronic daily hassles over 12 months predict reduced AM specificity when individuals avoid thinking about them. The findings provide evidence for the functional-avoidance hypothesis of OGM development and future directions for longitudinal studies.

Transdiagnostic and transtherapeutic strategies for optimising autobiographical memory.

Our memories for past personally experienced autobiographical events play an important role in therapy, irrespective of presenting issue, diagnoses or therapeutic modality. Here, we summarise evidence for how autobiographical memory abilities can influence our mental health and the relevance of this for the treatment of mental health problems. We then guide the reader through principles and strategies for optimising autobiographical memory within treatment. We ground these recommendations within research for stand-alone interventions for improving autobiographical memory and from studies of how to support the formation and retrieval of therapeutic memories. Options are given for clinicians to guide clients in improving retrieval of autobiographical memories within treatment, for improving autobiographical memory for the therapeutic experience itself, and for creating improvements in autobiographical memory that endure post-treatment. We also provide worksheets for clinicians to use within treatment.

Adaptive autobiographical memory in younger and older adults: the indirect association of integrative and instrumental reminiscence with depressive symptoms.

Despite the established effectiveness of reminiscence-based interventions for depression, little research exists into the pathways through which specific reminiscence functions are related to depressive symptoms. Drawing on theory of the mechanisms of change in cognitive-reminiscence therapy, the current study tests the hypothesised indirect associations of adaptive integrative and instrumental reminiscence functions with depressive symptoms and whether these relationships might differ among younger and older adults. Questionnaires were completed by a large community sample of the Australian population. Multiple mediation models were tested in two groups: younger adults (n = 730, M age = 52.24, SD=9.84) and older adults (n = 725, M age= 73.59, SD=6.29). Results were consistent across age groups, indicating that there was direct relationship between these reminiscence functions and depressive symptoms, but that integrative reminiscence is indirectly associated with depressive symptoms through meaning in life, self-esteem, and optimism, and that instrumental reminiscence is indirectly associated with depressive symptoms through primary control and self-efficacy. This study provides support for the relationships between constructs underlying the proposed mechanisms of change in cognitive-reminiscence therapy for the treatment of depression, and suggests these relationships are similar for younger and older adults.

Disclosure of suicidal ideation and behaviours: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence.

Disclosure of suicidal ideation and behaviours, defined as thoughts, plans, or attempts, to other people provides opportunity for intervention and prevention. This study is the first to meta-analyze all available studies to estimate the prevalence of disclosure, to whom people disclose, and examine factors that influence disclosure. Databases were searched for studies reporting samples of people who had experienced suicidal ideation or behaviours (including those who had died by suicide) and whether they had disclosed this. Almost 100 studies (k = 94, N participants = 1,044,629) were included in the overall prevalance analysis. The results showed less than half of people disclosed suicidal ideation or behaviour: 45.9% (95%CI 41.9-49.9%, PI 12.3-81.8%; k = 94). High heterogeneity, common to prevalence studies, was found (Q[93] = 130,584, p < .001; I2 = 99.9%). No publication bias was detected. Removing outliers did not change the prevalence estimate, but provided tighter prediction intervals: 45.6% (95%CI 43.4-47.9%, PI 35.8-55.7%; k = 33). Disclosure was related to higher prevalence of psychiatric disorders, female gender, and a longer timeframe of suicidal ideation or behaviour. Prevalence of disclosure was lower among people who died by suicide, relative to community samples, and lower when reported verbally rather than written online. Disclosure, and proportions of disclosures, to family members, was numerically higher than to friends or professionals, but could not be directly compared. In conclusion, between 50 and 60% of people do not disclose their suicidal ideation and behaviours to other people, and therefore remain unidentified and potentially untreated.

Psychometric evaluation of the internet addiction test in India.

The Internet Addiction Test is a widely used assessment of symptoms of internet addiction. Although originally proposed as assessing different components of internet addiction, research has been mixed in terms of its factor structure. This study is the first to examine the psychometric properties of the IAT in an Indian population. A large sample (N = 2700) of Indians living in the Southern city of India were recruited door-to-door and completed the IAT and other validity measures. In Study 1, an exploratory factor analysis (n = 1375) indicated a one-factor structure, with 13 items measuring symptoms of internet addiction. This short-form IAT showed construct and convergent validity by correlating with higher daily internet use, higher scores on measures of problematic internet gaming, social media use, and smartphone use, and functional impact. In Study 2, confirmatory factor analysis (n = 1375) indicted this one-factor structure was a good fit to the data, and the correlations with validity measures were replicated. This short-form IAT appears to be valid as a measure of one underlying factor of problematic internet use in young Indian adults.

Computerized Memory Specificity Training (c-MeST) for major depression: A randomised controlled trial.

Given modest response and high relapse after treatment for Major Depressive Episodes (MDE), the development and refinement of treatments to target cognitive vulnerabilities is indicated. Memory Specificity Training (MeST) remediates deficits in recalling detailed memories of past experiences through repeated practice of autobiographical memory retrieval. This randomised controlled trial aimed to assess the efficacy of an online, computerized version of MeST (c-MeST) for MDE. Adults (N = 245, 88.4% female; M age = 46.4) with a current MDE were randomised to the c-MeST program or wait-list control group. Significantly fewer participants in the c-MeST group, relative to control, met criteria for an MDE at one-month follow-up (35.7% c-MeST vs. 60.6% control), but not at other time-points. The c-MeST group, relative to the control group, scored significantly higher on memory specificity at all time-points following baseline (d = 0.53-0.93), and lower on depressive symptoms at one (d = 0.57) and three-month follow-up (d = 0.67). Changes in memory specificity mediated the effect of c-MeST on depressive symptoms at follow-up. c-MeST can improve memory specificity and depressive symptoms in people with an MDE, and may speed the rate of recovery. Future studies can further examine the mechanisms through which this occurs.

Changing the future: An initial test of Future Specificity Training (FeST).

A range of psychiatric disorders are characterised by impairments in episodic future thinking (EFT), and particularly simulating specific, spatiotemporally-located future events. No study has examined whether training can lead to sustained improvement in specific EFT. In this study, participants (N = 60; M age = 31, SD = 13.2) were randomized to a two-session, group-based future thinking program (Future Specificity Training; FeST) or wait-list. At follow-up the training group, relative to wait-list, showed large, statistically-significant improvements in the ability to mentally simulate specific EFT (d = .82), increases in detail (d = 1.32), use of mental imagery (d = 1.32), anticipated (d = 1.78) and anticipatory pleasure (d = 1.07), perceived control (d = 1.20), and likelihood of occurrence (d = 1.09). Some effects were also observed on positive, generalised future self-states. In the context of inherent limitations of subjective reporting in trials, this study provides evidence that EFT specificity can be enhanced, and the effects of FeST indicate a possible avenue to disrupt psychopathological processes.

Impairments in episodic future thinking for positive events and anticipatory pleasure in major depression.

BACKGROUND: Characteristic of the cardinal symptom of anhedonia, people with clinical depression report lower levels of anticipatory pleasure. However, the psychological mechanisms underlying these deficits are poorly understood. This is the first study to assess whether, and to what extent, phenomenological characteristics of episodic future thinking for positive future events are associated with anticipatory pleasure among depressed individuals. METHODS: Individuals with a Major Depressive Episode (MDE; N = 117) and without (N = 47) completed ratings scales for depressive symptoms and trait anticipatory and consummatory pleasure. They then provided descriptions of personally-relevant positive future events and rated them for phenomenological characteristics and state anticipatory pleasure. RESULTS: Between-groups analysis showed that those with MDE reported lower trait anticipatory and consummatory pleasure. They also simulated future events with less specificity, less detail/vividness, less use of mental imagery, less use of first-person perspective, less plausibility/perceived likelihood of occurring, and reported less associated state anticipatory pleasure. In regression analyses in the depressed group, lower scores for detail/vividness, mental imagery, and personal significance all uniquely predicted lower state anticipatory pleasure. LIMITATIONS: Cognitive functioning was not assessed, which may help clarify deficits that underpin these findings. History of previous depressive episodes in the comparison group were not assessed, which may mean the observed between-group effects are underestimated. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides further evidence of deficits in episodic future thinking and anticipatory pleasure in depressed individuals. It also establishes links between particular characteristics of episodic future thinking and state anticipatory pleasure, and indicates cognitive targets that may be amenable to intervention in order to reduce anhedonia.

A study protocol for a randomised trial of adjunct computerised memory specificity training (c-MeST) for major depression in youth: targeting cognitive mechanisms to enhance usual care outcomes in mental health settings.

BACKGROUND: Youth depression is highly prevalent and is related to impairments in academic, social and behavioural functioning. Evidence-based treatments are available, but many young people do not respond or sufficiently recover with first-line options, and a significant proportion experience relapse. Consequently, there is clear scope to enhance intervention in this critical period of early-onset depression. Memory specificity training (MeST) is a low-intensity intervention for depression that targets reduced specificity when recalling memories of the past, a common cognitive vulnerability in depression. This randomised controlled trial will assess the efficacy of adding a computerised version of MeST (c-MeST) to usual care for youth depression. METHODS/DESIGN: Young people aged 15-25 years with a major depressive episode (MDE) will be recruited and randomised to have immediate access to the seven session online c-MeST program in addition to usual care, or to usual care and wait-list for c-MeST. The primary outcomes will be diagnostic status of an MDE and self-reported depressive symptoms assessed at baseline, 1-, 3- and 6-month intervals. Autobiographical memory specificity and other variables thought to contribute to the maintenance of reduced memory specificity and depression will be assessed as mediators of change. DISCUSSION: Online provision of c-MeST provides a simple, low-intensity option for targeting a cognitive vulnerability that predicts the persistence of depressive symptoms. If found to be efficacious as an adjunct to usual care for depressed youth, it could be suitable for broader roll-out, as c-MeST is highly accessible and implementation requires only minimal resources due to the online and automated nature of intervention. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry, ACTRN12619000234112p. Registered on the 18 February 2019. All items from the WHO Trial Registration Data Set can be found within the protocol. PROTOCOL VERSION: 1.0.

The effect of increasing state anxiety on autobiographical memory specificity and future thinking.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Impairments in the specificity of autobiographical memory (AM) and future thinking are associated with a range of affective and psychopathological states, however, whether these deficits also occur in the context of state anxiety is not well known. We examined the effects of increasing state anxiety on the specificity of AM and future thoughts, as well as whether changes in rumination and executive functioning mediate any observed effects. METHODS: Sixty-four participants (M age = 29.1, SD = 11.5) were randomized to either an anxiety or neutral mood induction and completed pre and post-measures of the constructs of interest. RESULTS: There were significant decreases observed in AM specificity in the anxiety induction group, relative to the neutral group. No changes were observed for future thinking specificity. Rumination was increased as a result of the anxiety induction, but only a non-significant trend was observed with respect to its association with changes in AM and future thinking specificity. Verbal fluency and working memory were not affected by the induction. LIMITATIONS: Physiological measures of anxiety were not used. State anxiety, although increased, was not high in severity. Future research might use a clinical sample to assess generalizability of these findings. CONCLUSIONS: Although preliminary, these findings provide first evidence of the causal impact of an anxiety induction on the ability to retrieve specific AM.

Meaning in Life in Earlier and Later Older-Adulthood: Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Correlates of the Meaning in Life Questionnaire.

OBJECTIVE: To validate the Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ) in earlier and later older-adulthood, and examine its correlates. METHOD: Participants in earlier ( n = 341, M age = 68.5) and later older-adulthood ( n = 341, M age = 78.6) completed the MLQ and other measures. Confirmatory multigroup analysis, correlations, and regression models were conducted. RESULTS: A two-factor (presence and search), eight-item model of the MLQ had a good fit and was age-invariant. Presence and search for meaning were largely unrelated. Meaning was associated with life satisfaction, well-being across a range of domains, and psychological resources. Searching for meaning correlated negatively with these variables, but to a lesser degree in later older-adulthood. DISCUSSION: The MLQ is valid in older-adulthood. Meaning in life is psychologically adaptive in older-adulthood. Searching for meaning appears less important, especially in later older-adulthood. Findings are discussed in the context of aging and psychosocial development.

Psychopathology and episodic future thinking: A systematic review and meta-analysis of specificity and episodic detail.

Episodic future thinking (EFT) refers to the mental simulation of future events that might be personally-experienced; a crucial mental process in adaptation. Psychiatric disorders are associated with deficits in recalling episodic memory, however, no study has reviewed the empirical literature to assess for similar deficits in EFT. A systematic review comparing psychiatric groups with control groups on the specificity and episodic detail of EFT returned 19 eligible studies. An overall effect of g = -0.84 (95%CI = -1.06, - 0.62, p < .001) indicated individuals with a psychiatric diagnosis have significantly less specific and detailed EFT. Publication bias was not detected, but heterogeneity was. No methodological characteristics were significant moderators. Subgroup analyses showed significant effects for depression (g = -0.79, p < .001, k = 7), bipolar disorder (g = -1.00, p < .001, k = 2), and schizophrenia (g = -1.06, p < .001, k = 6), but not posttraumatic stress disorder (g = -1.04, p = .260, k = 2) or complicated grief (g = -0.41, p = .08, k = 2). Deficits in EFT are apparent in some psychiatric disorders. However, many clinical groups are understudied, and the causal mechanisms and remediation of these deficits require further research attention.