Antenatal counselling for prospective parents whose fetus has a neurological anomaly: part 2, risks of adverse outcome in common anomalies.

After diagnosis of a fetal neurological anomaly, prospective parents want to know the best and worst-case scenarios and an estimation of the risk to their infant of having an atypical developmental outcome. The literature on developmental outcomes for fetal neurological anomalies is poor: studies are characterized by retrospective design, small sample size, often no standardized assessment of development, and differing definitions of anomalies. This review provides an aide-memoir on the risks of adverse neurodevelopmental outcome for ventriculomegaly, cortical anomalies, microcephaly, macrocephaly, agenesis of the corpus callosum, posterior fossa anomalies, and myelomeningocele, to assist healthcare professionals in counselling. The data in this review should be used alongside recommendations on counselling and service design described in part 1 to provide antenatal counselling.

Antenatal counselling for prospective parents whose fetus has a neurological anomaly: part 1, experiences and recommendations for service design.

Prospective parents whose fetus is diagnosed with a neurological anomaly go through a complex range of emotions. They describe their discussions of antenatal counselling from health care professionals as focusing too much on the nature of the anomaly involving unintelligible medical terminology, when what they really want is a picture of the best- and worst-case scenarios. Whilst information on the level of risk for their fetus is important, it is not the parents' primary concern. When statistics for risk are given, they may not be as well understood as the health care professionals think. This review discusses the published evidence on antenatal counselling and recommendations for explaining risk to parents of fetuses with neurological anomalies. From this data we make recommendations for the organization of antenatal counselling services.

How paediatricians investigate early developmental impairment in the UK: a qualitative descriptive study.

BACKGROUND: Early developmental impairment (EDI) is common and has many aetiologies and, therefore, potential investigations. There are several published guidelines recommending aetiological investigations, and paediatricians' views of them varies. Little is known on the thought processes underlying clinical decisions in investigating EDI. This study aimed to describe the thought processes affecting clinical decisions on the investigation of EDI within a nationalised health care system. METHODS: A qualitative descriptive study using semi-structured qualitative interviews performed in person or via video link with paediatricians who see children with EDI in England. As part of the interview, a case study of a fictional disease, Cavorite deficiency, modelled on biotinidase deficiency, was given to participants with the cost of testing, incidence and likelihood it would respond to treatment. This allowed exploration of cost without encumbrance from predisposing views and training on the condition. Thematic analysis was performed by iterative approach. Where participants stated they wanted to redirect money from investigations to treatment, were that even possible, we asked which services they would like to be better funded in their area. RESULTS: Interviews were conducted with 14 consultant paediatricians: 9 Community / Neurodisability, 2 General paediatricians, and 3 Paediatric Neurologists. Two themes were identified: the value of an aetiological diagnosis to families and managing risk and probability when investigating EDI. The latter contained 4 subthemes: 'circumspection' involved blanket investigations chosen irrespective of phenotype and high regard for guidelines; 'accepting appropriate risk' involved participants choosing investigations based on clinical phenotype, recognising some aetiologies would be missed; consultants found they 'transitioned between practices' during their career; and 'improved practice' was thought possible with better evidence on how to stratify investigations based on phenotype. Services that were most frequently reported to need additional funding were therapy services, early community developmental services, management of behaviour, sleep and mental health, and educational support. CONCLUSIONS: There are many factors that influence paediatricians' choice of aetiological investigation in EDI, but clinical factors are the most important. Paediatricians want better evidence to allow them to select the right investigations for each child without a significant risk of missing an important diagnosis.

Attitudes towards the neurological examination in an unwell neonate: a mixed methods approach.

BACKGROUND: The neurological examination of an unwell neonate can aid management, such as deciding if hypothermia treatment is warranted in hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy or directing investigations in hypotonic neonates. Current standardised examinations are not designed for unwell or ventilated neonates, and it is unclear how confident paediatricians feel about the examination or what aspects they perform.  AIM: This study aimed to review the confidence of UK paediatricians on the neurological examination in unwell neonates, describe their attitudes towards it, and determine what could improve practice. METHODS: An explanatory sequential mixed methods approach (QUAN → QUAL) with equal weighting between stages. A survey on attitudes to the neonatal neurological examination was sent to all UK neonatal units and members of the British Paediatric Neurology Association. Volunteers were sought for semi-structured interviews. Thematic analysis was used to interpret qualitative data, which was triangulated with quantitative questionnaire data. RESULTS: One hundred ninety-three surveys were returned, 31.0% from neonatologists, 9.3% paediatric neurologist. The median range for confidence was 4 (IQR3-5). Twenty-three interviews occurred. Thematic analysis revealed three themes: "Current culture on neonatal units", " Practicalities of the neurological examination in unwell neonates", and "Changing the culture". Most interviewees did not feel confident performing or interpreting the neurological examination in unwell neonates. Many units had a culture of seeing it as low priority, did not see its relevance in the acute management of unwell neonates. A few interviewees worked in units with a positive culture towards the neurological examination who used adapted standardised examinations and provided training. 72% of questionnaire responders wanted a new standardised neurological examination designed for the unwell neonate, which should be short, utilise pictures like the Hammersmith Neonatal Neurological Examination, contain an assessment of consciousness, be developmentally appropriate and achievable in unwell, ventilated neonates, be accompanied by a schematic to aid interpretation, and for greater training and assessments of competence. CONCLUSIONS: There are barriers preventing paediatricians being able to perform a neurological examination in unwell neonates, and a culture of neurophobia is common. A new standardised examination is needed, alongside aids to interpretation, training, and assessment.

Knowledge and attitudes of critical care providers towards neurophysiological monitoring, seizure diagnosis, and treatment.

AIM: To explore the attitudes of paediatric intensive care unit (PICU) health care professionals towards diagnosis and neurophysiological monitoring of seizures. METHOD: This study used an explanatory sequential mixed-methods approach, interconnecting quantitative and qualitative features, comprising questionnaires and interviews, with equal weighting between stages, of health care professionals working in UK PICUs. Interview data were analysed using thematic analysis and triangulated with questionnaire data. RESULTS: Seventy-two questionnaires were returned: 49 out of 60 (71.0%) of respondents reported that seizures were extremely hard or somewhat hard to diagnose in a critically ill child, and 81.2% had seen misdiagnosis occur. Thematic analysis revealed two main themes: (1) feeling out of control when faced with 'grey areas'; and (2) regaining control, which compromised three subthemes: aggressive intervention, accurate diagnosis, and eschewing diagnosis. INTERPRETATION: Health care professionals find accurate diagnosis of seizures difficult, particularly in sedated/paralysed children and those with chronic neurological disorders. They report they would like better educational opportunities on discriminating between epileptic and non-epileptic events to improve their confidence. Professionals want routine neurophysiological monitoring that can be applied and interpreted at the bedside throughout the day to regain a sense of control over their patient, direct treatment appropriately, and, potentially, improve outcomes, but report appropriate training and peer review are essential if it is to be introduced into routine care. What this study adds Paediatric intensive care unit (PICU) staff feel out of control when faced with diagnosing seizures. Neurophysiological monitoring is wanted to help diagnosis and treatment. Amplitude-integrated electroencephalography is the preferred, pragmatic tool by PICU staff.

Feedback, Crosstalk and Competition: Ingredients for Emergent Non-Linear Behaviour in the PI3K/mTOR Signalling Network.

The PI3K/mTOR signalling pathway plays a central role in the governing of cell growth, survival and metabolism. As such, it must integrate and decode information from both external and internal sources to guide efficient decision-making by the cell. To facilitate this, the pathway has evolved an intricate web of complex regulatory mechanisms and elaborate crosstalk with neighbouring signalling pathways, making it a highly non-linear system. Here, we describe the mechanistic biological details that underpin these regulatory mechanisms, covering a multitude of negative and positive feedback loops, feed-forward loops, competing protein interactions, and crosstalk with major signalling pathways. Further, we highlight the non-linear and dynamic network behaviours that arise from these regulations, uncovered through computational and experimental studies. Given the pivotal role of the PI3K/mTOR network in cellular homeostasis and its frequent dysregulation in pathologies including cancer and diabetes, a coherent and systems-level understanding of the complex regulation and consequential dynamic signalling behaviours within this network is imperative for advancing biology and development of new therapeutic approaches.

Anticoagulation Management for Impella Percutaneous Ventricular Assist Devices: An Analysis of a Single-Center Experience.

BACKGROUND: Impella devices offer temporary mechanical circulatory support for cardiogenic shock. The manufacturer recommends systemic anticoagulation with a target activated clotting time of 160 to 180 s but provides no guidance on how to manage both the heparinized purge solution and the additional intravenous heparin needed to reach this therapeutic range. Previous publications demonstrated a lack of standardization in heparin management for Impella devices. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness and safety of 2 different heparin protocols for long-term Impella support. METHODS: This single-center, retrospective study included adult patients on Impella support for greater than 24 hours. The primary end point was time to therapeutic range measured in hours, from time of implantation to the first of 2 consecutive measurements within the therapeutic range. Secondary end points included percentage of time in therapeutic range, rates of major bleeding, pump thrombosis, hemolysis, and nursing satisfaction. RESULTS: There were 19 patients identified, with 7 using the original protocol and 12 using the revised protocol. Time to therapeutic range was similar between protocols (15.5 vs 12 hours, P = NS). Another 14 patients were managed with patient-specific protocols as a result of bleeding or physician preference. In total, 42% of all patients in this study experienced major bleeding. There were no confirmed thrombosis events. This study was limited by a small sample size. CONCLUSION AND RELEVANCE: Despite using different heparin protocols, outcomes and bleeding events were similar between groups. Future studies are needed to determine the optimal degree of anticoagulation necessary to reduce bleeding risk.

Investigating and managing neonatal seizures in the UK: an explanatory sequential mixed methods approach.

BACKGROUND: Neonatal seizures are difficult to diagnose and, when they are, tradition dictates first line treatment is phenobarbital. There is little data on how consultants diagnose neonatal seizures, choose when to treat or how they choose aetiological investigations or drug treatments. The purpose of this study was to assess the variation across the UK in the management of neonatal seizures and explore paediatricians' views on their diagnosis and treatment. METHODS: An explanatory sequential mixed methods approach was used (QUAN→QUAL) with equal waiting between stages. We collected quantitative data from neonatology staff and paediatric neurologists using a questionnaire sent to neonatal units and via emails from the British Paediatric Neurology Association. We asked for copies of neonatal unit guidelines on the management of seizures. The data from questionnaires was used to identify16 consultants using semi-structured interviews. Thematic analysis was used to interpret qualitative data, which was triangulated with quantitative questionnaire data. RESULTS: One hundred questionnaires were returned: 47.7% thought levetiracetam was as, or equally, effective as phenobarbital; 9.2% thought it was less effective. 79.6% of clinicians had seen no side effects in neonates with levetiracetam. 97.8% of unit guidelines recommended phenobarbital first line, with wide variation in subsequent drug choice, aetiological investigations, and advice on when to start treatment. Thematic analysis revealed three themes: 'Managing uncertainty with neonatal seizures', 'Moving practice forward' and 'Multidisciplinary team working'. Consultants noted collecting evidence on anti-convulsant drugs in neonates is problematic, and recommended a number of solutions, including collaboration to reach consensus guidelines, to reduce diagnostic and management uncertainty. CONCLUSIONS: There is wide variation in the management of neonatal seizures and clinicians face many uncertainties. Our data has helped reveal some of the reasons for current practice and decision making. Suggestions to improve certainty include: educational initiatives to improve the ability of neonatal staff to describe suspicious events, greater use of video, closer working between neonatologists and neurologists, further research, and a national discussion to reach a consensus on a standardised approach to managing neonatal epileptic seizures.

What are the information needs of parents caring for a child with Glutaric aciduria type 1?

BACKGROUND: Newborn screening has enabled the early diagnosis of Glutaric aciduria type 1, with the possibility of improving neurological outcomes in affected children. Achieving those outcomes requires parents to effectively manage their child's condition by adherence to a strict dietary regime and responding to situations that may trigger decompensation. The specific information and support needs of this group of parents are unknown. METHODS: A focus group with five parents was conducted to gain insights into the information that parents needed and the ways in which they accessed and used information to manage their child's condition. A topic guide was used to direct the discussion which was recorded and fully transcribed. All participants gave informed consent. Data were analysed using thematic analysis, a structured approach that contributes to transparency and validity of results while allowing the integration of predetermined and emerging themes. To ensure rigour, two researchers were involved in initial coding of data and key analytic decisions. RESULTS: Two main themes were identified. 'Understanding the condition' explored parent's needs to understand the scientific complexity of the condition and to be aware of the worst case scenario associated with loss of metabolic control. 'Managing the condition' explained how parents co-ordinated and controlled the involvement of other carers and parents' need to be active partners in medical management to feel in control of the situation. CONCLUSIONS: The study highlights the importance of addressing parents' initial and ongoing informational needs so they can fulfil their role and protect their child from metabolic harm.

Seascape genomics reveals adaptive divergence in a connected and commercially important mollusc, the greenlip abalone (Haliotis laevigata), along a longitudinal environmental gradient.

Populations of broadcast spawning marine organisms often have large sizes and are exposed to reduced genetic drift. Under such scenarios, strong selection associated with spatial environmental heterogeneity is expected to drive localized adaptive divergence, even in the face of connectivity. We tested this hypothesis using a seascape genomics approach in the commercially important greenlip abalone (Haliotis laevigata). We assessed how its population structure has been influenced by environmental heterogeneity along a zonal coastal boundary in southern Australia linked by strong oceanographic connectivity. Our data sets include 9,109 filtered SNPs for 371 abalones from 13 localities and environmental mapping across ~800 km. Genotype-environment association analyses and outlier tests defined 8,786 putatively neutral and 323 candidate adaptive loci. From a neutral perspective, the species is better represented by a metapopulation with very low differentiation (global FST  = 0.0081) and weak isolation by distance following a stepping-stone model. For the candidate adaptive loci, however, model-based and model-free approaches indicated five divergent population clusters. After controlling for spatial distance, the distribution of putatively adaptive variation was strongly correlated to selection linked to minimum sea surface temperature and oxygen concentration. Around 80 candidates were annotated to genes with functions related to high temperature and/or low oxygen tolerance, including genes that influence the resilience of abalone species found in other biogeographic regions. Our study includes a documented example about the uptake of genomic information in fisheries management and supports the hypothesis of adaptive divergence due to coastal environmental heterogeneity in a connected metapopulation of a broadcast spawner.

Initial experience of an investigational 3T MR scanner designed for use on neonatal wards.

OBJECTIVES: MR imaging of neonates is difficult for many reasons and a major factor is safe transport to the MR facilities. In this article we describe the use of a small, investigational 3-T MR customised for brain imaging and sited on a neonatal unit of a tertiary centre in the UK, which is in contrast to a 300-m journey to the whole-body MR scanner used at present for clinical cases. METHODS: We describe our methods for preparing babies for safe transport and scanning on an investigational 3-T MR scanner on a neonatal unit and the development of appropriate MR sequences. The MR scanner does not have CE marking at present so this early development work was undertaken on normal neonates whose parents consented to a research examination. RESULTS: Fifty-two babies were scanned and there were no serious adverse events. The MR examinations were considered to be diagnostically evaluable in all 52 cases and in 90% the imaging was considered to be at least as good as the quality obtained on the 1.5-T scanner currently used for clinical cases. CONCLUSION: We have shown that this investigational 3-T MR scanner can be used safely on a neonatal unit and we have refined the MR sequences to a point that they are clinically usable. KEY POINTS: • Access to neonatal MR imaging is limited. • We describe an investigational 3-T MR scanner site on a neonatal unit. • The scanner produces images suitable for clinical practice.

Anticoagulation in the management of neonatal cerebral sinovenous thrombosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

AIM: To determine whether anticoagulation therapy (ACT) in the treatment of neonatal cerebral sinovenous thrombosis (CSVT) improves outcomes, in the presence or absence of pre-existing intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH). METHOD: We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, the Web of Science, and clinical trial databases. We considered data from retrospective and prospective cohort studies, case series, and randomized controlled studies evaluating outcomes of CSVT treated with anticoagulation or no anticoagulation. Studies were included if they involved infants either younger than 28 days of age or younger than 44 weeks postmenstrual age at the time of diagnosis of CSVT in which ACT was considered. RESULTS: Seven non-randomized studies were included in meta-analysis. ACT had no significant effect on mortality before discharge either in the presence or absence of pre-existing ICH, nor on the incidence of extension of pre-existing ICH. ACT was associated with a reduced risk of propagation of thrombus (risk ratio 0.14, 95% confidence interval 0.03-0.72). INTERPRETATION: There are no randomized trials assessing the safety and efficacy of ACT in the treatment of neonatal CSVT. The results of this meta-analysis would justify a position of equipoise and support the need for well-designed randomized controlled trials of ACT in this population. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: No randomized studies have evaluated anticoagulation therapy (ACT) in neonatal cerebral sinovenous thrombosis. ACT may reduce thrombus propagation. No evidence of increased morbidity or mortality with ACT was demonstrated. A position of equipoise is justified, supporting the need for placebo-controlled randomized trials.

Cyclical vomiting syndrome secondary to a Chiari I malformation-a case report.

BACKGROUND: Cyclical vomiting syndrome is a disorder characterised by recurrent episodes of profuse vomiting. There are no cases in the literature on the management of children with presenting with cyclical vomiting syndrome and a Chiari malformation type I. DISCUSSION: We report the case of a 12-year-old child diagnosed with cyclical vomiting syndrome and a Chiari malformation type I. The patient received symptomatic relief following a craniocervical decompression.

Neonatal hypertonia - a diagnostic challenge.

In comparison to hypotonia, hypertonia is less commonly expressed in the neonatal period. The scientific literature on the causes of neonatal hypertonia is scant, with no suggested diagnostic algorithm easily available to clinicians. Aetiologies include conditions affecting the central nervous system and spine, and rare peripheral neuromuscular disorders leading to hypertonia. Aetiology onset may be antepartum, peripartum with either transient hypertonia or persistent hypertonia which may appear later, or from a postnatal event/disease. This review discusses neonatal hypertonia and a diagnostic approach to neonatal hypertonia is suggested.

Neonatal seizures-part 2: Aetiology of acute symptomatic seizures, treatments and the neonatal epilepsy syndromes.

Most neonatal epileptic seizures are provoked by an underlying condition or problem-'acute symptomatic seizures'. However, a few neonatal epilepsy syndromes exist, and these are defined by the constellation of seizure types, EEG findings and family history seen. Making an accurate diagnosis of an epilepsy syndrome can help direct investigations, treatment options and provide prognostic information. This article discusses the investigative approach and treatments for neonatal epileptic seizures, including the neonatal epilepsy syndromes.

Neonatal seizures-part 1: Not everything that jerks, stiffens and shakes is a fit.

The neonatal period is the most frequent time of life to have epileptic seizures. However, neonates can also exhibit unusual movements that are not epileptic seizures. Differentiating between epileptic and non-epileptic movements can be difficult. Many neonatal seizures exhibit few or no clinical features at all. This article is for the benefit of paediatric trainees and reviews the published evidence on which neonatal movements are likely to be epileptic seizures and which are not. We also discuss epileptic seizure classification.

Preliminary results on validity and reliability from two prospective cohort studies on a new Neonatal Coma Score.

OBJECTIVE: To collect data on content/face validity and interobserver agreement for a Neonatal Coma Score (NCS) in well full-term neonates and on construct validity in unwell and preterm babies, specifically how the NCS changed with gestational age and illness. DESIGN: Prospective cohort studies. SETTING: Two UK tertiary neonatal units (Sheffield and Leeds). PATIENTS: 151 well full-term (≥37 weeks gestational age) newborn babies recruited between January and February 2020 in Sheffield and April and May 2021 in Leeds; 101 sick preterm and full-term babies admitted to Sheffield neonatal unit between January 2021 and May 2022. INTERVENTION: A new NCS. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Determination of normal values in well babies born ≥37 weeks gestational age; data on how the NCS changes with gestational age and illness. RESULTS: Face validity was demonstrated during development of the NCS. The median NCS of well, full-term newborn babies was 15 and the intraclass correlation coefficient was 0.78 (95% CI 0.70 to 0.84). In the 'well' preterm population, 95% <28 weeks had a score ≥11; 28-31 weeks ≥11; 32-36 weeks ≥13 and 37-44 weeks 14-15. The NCS dropped during periods of deterioration, demonstrating evidence of construct validity. Criterion validity was not assessed. CONCLUSIONS: The NCS has good intraobserver agreement in well full-term babies, with a normal NCS 14-15. The NCS in preterm neonates depended on gestational age, and deterioration from baseline was associated with illness. Further work is needed to determine normal scores each gestational age, reliability at lower levels, how early the NCS identifies deterioration and comparison with other assessment tools to demonstrate criterion validity.

Fetal Cerebral Ventriculomegaly: A Narrative Review and Practical Recommendations for Pediatric Neurologists.

Fetal cerebral ventriculomegaly is one of the most common fetal neurological disorders identified prenatally by neuroimaging. The challenges in the evolving landscape of conditions like fetal cerebral ventriculomegaly involve accurate diagnosis and how best to provide prenatal counseling regarding prognosis as well as postnatal management and care of the infant. The purpose of this narrative review is to discuss the literature on fetal ventriculomegaly, including postnatal management and neurodevelopmental outcome, and to provide practice recommendations for pediatric neurologists.

Assessing the performance of the four question abbreviated mental test in the acute geriatric setting.

BACKGROUND: NCognitive impairment is common amongst acute geriatric hospital admissions but detection is often poor and this is associated with worse outcomes. The four-question abbreviated mental test (AMT4) has previously been promoted nationally in the acute setting as a succinct assessment tool. However, a recent national dementia Commissioning for Quality and Innovation (CQUIN) goal recommends a single screening question followed by the tenquestion abbreviated mental test (AMT10). We aimed to evaluate the negative predictive value of the AMT4 within the acute setting by comparing it to three other validated tools. METHOD: We identified 100 acute medical admissions (>60 years old) with a negative AMT4 and administered the AMT10, six-item cognitive impairment test (6CIT) and confusion assessment method (CAM) within 24 hours of admission. RESULTS: Forty-six percent of the participants scored positively on at least one of the additional tests despite a negative AMT4. Forty-four patients had a positive 6CIT, 23 had a positive AMT10 and six had a positive CAM. Using the 6CIT as a diagnostic standard, tests of short-term memory had the greatest sensitivity and specificity for cognitive impairment. CONCLUSION: Nearly half of the participants had signs of cognitive impairment despite a negative AMT4. Consequently, there is a risk of under diagnosis with potentially serious consequences for morbidity and mortality. Tests of shortterm memory were strongly associated with cognitive impairment. We propose the addition of such a test in order to increase the sensitivity of the AMT4 without compromising its brevity and utility in the acute setting.

Meta-Dynamic Network Modelling for Biochemical Networks.

ODE modelling requires accurate knowledge of parameter and state variable values to deliver accurate and robust predictions. Parameters and state variables, however, are rarely static and immutable entities, especially in a biological context. This observation undermines the predictions made by ODE models that rely on specific parameter and state variable values and limits the contexts in which their predictions remain accurate and useful. Meta-dynamic network (MDN) modelling is a technique that can be synergistically integrated into an ODE modelling pipeline to assist in overcoming these limitations. The core mechanic of MDN modelling is the generation of a large number of model instances, each with a unique set of parameters and/or state variable values, followed by the simulation of each to determine how parameter and state variable variation affects protein dynamics. This process reveals the range of possible protein dynamics for a given network topology. Since MDN modelling is integrated with traditional ODE modelling, it can also be used to investigate the underlying causal mechanics. This technique is particularly suited to the investigation of network behaviors in systems that are highly heterogenous or systems wherein the network properties can change over time. MDN is a collection of principles rather than a strict protocol, so in this chapter, we have introduced the core principles using an example, the Hippo-ERK crosstalk signalling network.