Vaginal bacterium Prevotella timonensis turns protective Langerhans cells into HIV-1 reservoirs for virus dissemination.

Dysbiosis of vaginal microbiota is associated with increased HIV-1 acquisition, but the underlying cellular mechanisms remain unclear. Vaginal Langerhans cells (LCs) protect against mucosal HIV-1 infection via autophagy-mediated degradation of HIV-1. As LCs are in continuous contact with bacterial members of the vaginal microbiome, we investigated the impact of commensal and dysbiosis-associated vaginal (an)aerobic bacterial species on the antiviral function of LCs. Most of the tested bacteria did not affect the HIV-1 restrictive function of LCs. However, Prevotella timonensis induced a vast uptake of HIV-1 by vaginal LCs. Internalized virus remained infectious for days and uptake was unaffected by antiretroviral drugs. P. timonensis-exposed LCs efficiently transmitted HIV-1 to target cells both in vitro and ex vivo. Additionally, P. timonensis exposure enhanced uptake and transmission of the HIV-1 variants that establish infection after sexual transmission, the so-called Transmitted Founder variants. Our findings, therefore, suggest that P. timonensis might set the stage for enhanced HIV-1 susceptibility during vaginal dysbiosis and advocate targeted treatment of P. timonensis during bacterial vaginosis to limit HIV-1 infection.

Infection and transmission of SARS-CoV-2 depend on heparan sulfate proteoglycans.

The current pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and outbreaks of new variants highlight the need for preventive treatments. Here, we identified heparan sulfate proteoglycans as attachment receptors for SARS-CoV-2. Notably, neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 isolated from COVID-19 patients interfered with SARS-CoV-2 binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycans, which might be an additional mechanism of antibodies to neutralize infection. SARS-CoV-2 binding to and infection of epithelial cells was blocked by low molecular weight heparins (LMWH). Although dendritic cells (DCs) and mucosal Langerhans cells (LCs) were not infected by SARS-CoV-2, both DC subsets efficiently captured SARS-CoV-2 via heparan sulfate proteoglycans and transmitted the virus to ACE2-positive cells. Notably, human primary nasal cells were infected by SARS-CoV-2, and infection was blocked by pre-treatment with LMWH. These data strongly suggest that heparan sulfate proteoglycans are important attachment receptors facilitating infection and transmission, and support the use of LMWH as prophylaxis against SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Antibody responses induced by SHIV infection are more focused than those induced by soluble native HIV-1 envelope trimers in non-human primates.

The development of an effective human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) vaccine is a high global health priority. Soluble native-like HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein trimers (Env), including those based on the SOSIP design, have shown promise as vaccine candidates by inducing neutralizing antibody responses against the autologous virus in animal models. However, to overcome HIV-1's extreme diversity a vaccine needs to induce broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs). Such bNAbs can protect non-human primates (NHPs) and humans from infection. The prototypic BG505 SOSIP.664 immunogen is based on the BG505 env sequence isolated from an HIV-1-infected infant from Kenya who developed a bNAb response. Studying bNAb development during natural HIV-1 infection can inform vaccine design, however, it is unclear to what extent vaccine-induced antibody responses to Env are comparable to those induced by natural infection. Here, we compared Env antibody responses in BG505 SOSIP-immunized NHPs with those in BG505 SHIV-infected NHPs, by analyzing monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). We observed three major differences between BG505 SOSIP immunization and BG505 SHIV infection. First, SHIV infection resulted in more clonal expansion and less antibody diversity compared to SOSIP immunization, likely because of higher and/or prolonged antigenic stimulation and increased antigen diversity during infection. Second, while we retrieved comparatively fewer neutralizing mAbs (NAbs) from SOSIP-immunized animals, these NAbs targeted more diverse epitopes compared to NAbs from SHIV-infected animals. However, none of the NAbs, either elicited by vaccination or infection, showed any breadth. Finally, SOSIP immunization elicited antibodies against the base of the trimer, while infection did not, consistent with the base being placed onto the virus membrane in the latter setting. Together these data provide new insights into the antibody response against BG505 Env during infection and immunization and limitations that need to be overcome to induce better responses after vaccination.

Dengue Virus Infects Human Skin Langerhans Cells through Langerin for Dissemination to Dendritic Cells.

Dengue virus (DENV) is the most disease-causative flavivirus worldwide. DENV as a mosquito-borne virus infects human hosts through the skin; however, the initial target cells in the skin remain unclear. In this study, we have investigated whether epidermal Langerhans cells (LCs) play a role in DENV acquisition and dissemination. We have used a human epidermal ex vivo infection model as well as isolated LCs to investigate infection by DENV. Notably, both immature and mature LCs were permissive to DENV infection in vitro and ex vivo, and infection was dependent on C-type lectin receptor langerin because blocking antibodies against langerin significantly reduced DENV infection in vitro and ex vivo. DENV-infected LCs efficiently transmitted DENV to target cells such as dendritic cells. Moreover, DENV exposure increased the migration of LCs from epidermal explants. These results strongly suggest that DENV targets epidermal LCs for infection and dissemination in the human host. These findings could provide potential drug targets to combat the early stage of DENV infection.

Human Dendritic Cells Transmit Enterovirus A71 via Heparan Sulfates to Target Cells Independent of Viral Replication.

Enterovirus A71 (EV-A71) is a causative agent of life-threatening neurological diseases in young children. EV-A71 is highly infectious but it remains unclear how the virus disseminates from primary entry sites-the mucosa of the respiratory tract or the intestine-to secondary replication sites-skin or brain. Here, we investigated the role of dendritic cells (DCs) in EV-A71 dissemination. DCs reside in the mucosa of the airway and gut, and migrate to lymphoid tissues upon activation and, therefore, could facilitate EV-A71 dissemination to secondary replication sites. Monocyte-derived DCs were not permissive to different genotypes of EV-A71 but, notably, coculture with EV-A71-susceptiblle RD99 cells led to very efficient infection of RD99 cells. Notably, EV-A71 transmission of DCs to RD99 was independent of viral replication as a replication inhibitor did not affect transmission. Soluble heparin blocked EV-A71 transmission by DCs to RD99 cells, in contrast to antibodies against known attachment receptor DC-SIGN. These results strongly suggest that DCs might be a first target for EV-A71 and involved in viral dissemination via heparan sulfates and heparin derivatives might be an effective treatment to attenuate dissemination. IMPORTANCE EV-A71 is an emerging neurotropic virus that is of emerging concern and can result in polio-like illness. The exact mechanism of how EV-A71 results in neurological symptoms are unknown. In particular, the early dissemination of the virus from primary replication sites (airway and intestine) to secondary sites (central nervous system and skin) needs to be elucidated. There is evidence pointing toward a role for dendritic cells (DC) in EV-A71 transmission. Moreover, heparan sulfate (HS) binding mutations are observed in patients with severe diseases. Therefore, we evaluated the potential role of HS on DC in transmission. We find that HS are critical for transmitting EV-A71 by DC to target cells. Our data are consistent with other clinical and in vitro observations highlighting the importance of HS in EV-A71-induced disease.

Vaginal dysbiosis associated-bacteria Megasphaera elsdenii and Prevotella timonensis induce immune activation via dendritic cells.

Dysbiosis of the vaginal microbiome as a result of overgrowth of anaerobic bacteria leads to bacterial vaginosis (BV) which is associated with increased inflammation in the genital mucosa. Moreover, BV increases susceptibility to sexual transmitted infections (STIs) and is associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. It remains unclear how specific vaginal aerobic and anaerobic bacteria affect health and disease. We selected different vaginal bacteria ranging from true commensals to species associated with dysbiosis and investigated their effects on activation of dendritic cells (DCs). Commensal Lactobacilli crispatus did not induce DC maturation nor led to production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. In contrast, BV-associated bacteria Megasphaera elsdenii and Prevotella timonensis induced DC maturation and increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Notably, DCs stimulated with Prevotella timonensis suppressed Th2 responses and induced Th1 skewing, typically associated with preterm birth. In contrast, Lactobacillus crispatus and Megasphaera elsdenii did not affect Th cell polarization. These results strongly indicate that the interaction of vaginal bacteria with mucosal DCs determines mucosal inflammation and we have identified the anaerobic bacterium Prevotella timonensis as a strong inducer of inflammatory responses. Specifically targeting these inflammation-inducing bacteria might be a therapeutic strategy to prevent BV and associated risks in STI susceptibility and preterm birth.

C-Type Lectin Receptors in Antiviral Immunity and Viral Escape.

C-type lectin receptors (CLRs) are important pattern recognition receptors involved in recognition and induction of adaptive immunity to pathogens. Certain CLRs play an important role in viral infections as they efficiently interact with viruses. However, it has become clear that deadly viruses subvert the function of CLRs to escape antiviral immunity and promote infection. In particular, viruses target CLRs to suppress or modulate type I interferons that play a central role in the innate and adaptive defense against viruses. In this review, we discuss the function of CLRs in binding to enveloped viruses like HIV-1 and Dengue virus, and how uptake and signaling cascades have decisive effects on the outcome of infection.

Innate immune receptors drive dengue virus immune activation and disease.

Dengue is a worldwide disease with 400 million annual infections that can lead to septic shock and viral hemorrhagic fever with internal bleeding. These symptoms are the result of uncontrolled immune activation. Macrophages and dendritic cells are the main target of dengue virus (DENV) and the cellular source of cytokines associated with this immune activation. Macrophages and dendritic cells express several innate immune receptors that have been implicated in DENV immune activation, of which, CLEC5A, RIG-I and MDA5 are most important. Notably, activation of these receptors have profound effects on adaptive immune responses against DENV. This review will focus on how innate immune receptors drive DENV immune activation by inducing inflammatory cytokines and by activating adaptive immune responses.