Hypertension and incident dementia in community-dwelling elderly Yoruba Nigerians.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the relationship between hypertension and dementia incidence in community-dwelling elderly Yoruba (aged 70 years and above) because of sparse information on dementia and its risk factors in developing countries. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Community-based, prospective study of consenting elderly Yoruba using two-stage design. Blood pressure was measured during the baseline evaluation at 2001 and hypertension was defined as BP ≥ 140/90 mmHg. Diagnosis of dementia and normal cognition was by consensus using standard criteria. Non-demented subjects from the 2001 evaluation wave were re-evaluated during the 2004 and 2007 waves for dementia. Logistic regression was used to examine the association of baseline hypertension and incident dementia, after adjusting for age, gender, education, and histories of stroke and smoking. P-values <0.05 were considered significant. RESULTS: During the 6-year follow-up, 120 individuals developed dementia, while 1633 remained non-demented. The frequency of hypertension in the demented group was significantly higher than in the non-demented (70.0% vs 60.2%, P = 0.034). Baseline hypertension was a significant risk factor for dementia (OR = 1.52; 95% CI 1.01-2.30). Higher systolic, diastolic or pulse pressure was associated with increased risk (P < 0.05). Participants with diastolic BP ≥ 90 mmHg were at a significantly greater risk than those with readings below 70 mmHg (OR = 1.65; 95% CI 1.01-2.69). CONCLUSIONS: Hypertension was associated with increased risk of dementia in elderly Yoruba and its appropriate treatment may lower the risk.

A comparison of cardiovascular disease risk factor biomarkers in African Americans and Yoruba Nigerians.

OBJECTIVE: Classical risk factors for coronary artery disease are changing in the developing world while rates of cardiovascular disease are increasing in these populations. Newer risk factors have been identified for cardiovascular disease, but these have been rarely examined in elderly populations and not those of developing countries. METHODS: This study was a cross-sectional comparison from a longitudinal, observational, epidemiologic study in which participants are interviewed at three-year intervals. The sample included 1510 African Americans from Indianapolis, Indiana, and 1254 Yoruba from Ibadan, Nigeria. We compared anthropomorphic measurements; biomarkers of endothelial dysfunction (plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 [PAI-1 and E-selectin), inflammation (C-reactive protein), and lipid oxidation (8-isoprostane); and levels of lipids, homocysteine, folate, and vitamin B12. RESULTS: Cholesterol, triglycerides, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels were higher in African Americans. For markers of endothelial dysfunction, E-selectin and homocysteine differed between men, and PAI-1 was higher in the Yoruba. C-reactive protein differed only in women, but 8-isoprostane was higher in the Yoruba. CONCLUSION: Higher lipid levels in African Americans are consistent with their Western diet and lifestyle. Oxidative stress appears to be higher in the Yoruba than in African Americans, which may be secondary to dietary differences. Whether these differences in classical and emerging risk factors account for the different rates of cardiovascular disease, dementia, or other morbidities in these two populations remains to be determined.

The relationships between age, sex, and the incidence of dementia and Alzheimer disease: a meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Prevalence studies on dementia and Alzheimer disease (AD) have reported a positive association with age. However, the trend of the association in the oldest-old categories has been the subject of discussion. The relationship between sex and AD has been inconsistent with these studies. Prevalence rates are influenced by the survival and disease incidence. Incidence rates provide a better measure of disease risk. METHODS: English-language articles identified through a MEDLINE search on "incidence dementia" and "incidence Alzheimer's disease" were examined and references from identified articles were reviewed. Population-based studies using personal interviews, standard clinical diagnosis criteria (DSM-III for dementia, National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke-Alzheimer's Disease and Related Disorder Association for AD) and reporting age-specific incidence rates were included in the meta-analysis. Data from the selected studies were extracted and verified. Mixed-effect models were used in the meta-analysis to accommodate the heterogeneity of the studies. RESULTS: Incident dementia and AD are associated with a significant quadratic age effect indicating that the increase in incidence rates slows down with the increase in age, although there is no sign of a decline in the incidence rates themselves. The odds ratios for women to develop incidence of dementia and AD relative to men are 1.18 (95% confidence interval, 0.95-1.46) and 1.56 (95% confidence interval, 1.16-2.10), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The acceleration of incidence rates for AD and dementia slows down with the increase in age, although we find no evidence of a rate decline. Women are at higher risk of developing AD than men.

Plasma tryptophan and five other amino acids in depressed and normal subjects.

Decreases in brain serotonin levels have been implicated in the pathogenesis of human depression. While circulating levels of tryptophan (TRP) might possibly reflect concentration of brain serotonin, a more relevant peripheral measure may be the ratio of plasma TRP to five other neutral amino acids (TRP/5aa ratio). In depressed subjects and normal controls, plasma TRP (free and total), phenylalanine (PHE), tyrosine (TYR), leucine, isoleucine, and valine were measured on three days. When depression was most severe, depressed patients had lower TRP/5aa ratios and total TRP levels and higher PHE and TYR levels. After the patients' conditions improved, these differences disappeared. As Hamilton depression scores improved, the plasma TRP/5aa ratios increased significantly. This finding tends to support the idea that changes in brain serotonin level reflect changes in depression severity.

Diagnosis, management, and treatment of Alzheimer disease: a guide for the internist.

Alzheimer disease (AD) is a diagnosis of inclusion based on patient history, physical examination, neuropsychological testing, and laboratory studies; however, there is no definitive diagnostic test for AD. Early recognition of AD allows time to plan for the future and to treat patients before marked deterioration occurs. Effective treatment requires monitoring of symptoms, functional impairment, and safety, and the use of multiple treatment modalities including pharmacotherapy, behavioral management, psychotherapies, psychosocial treatments, and support and education for families. Pharmacotherapeutic agents available for AD only provide symptomatic relief. The cholinesterase inhibitors, tacrine and donepezil, are effective in improving cognition, delaying nursing home placement, and improving behavioral complications in some patients. Other cholinesterase inhibitors are in development, as are other cholinomimetic agents such as muscarinic and nicotinic receptor agonists. Symptomatic treatments are available for the psychiatric manifestations of AD. Anti-inflammatories, antioxidants, neurotrophic factors, and other agents are promising new treatments for the future.

Caring for individuals with dementia: the Nigerian experience.

Recent epidemiological data, mainly from cross-cultural studies, have revealed that the burden of dementia and Alzheimer's disease (AD) the most common type, is significantly lower in developing than in the industrialized countries. Caring for individuals with dementia is a major consideration because most developing countries do not have the resources to provide comprehensive care in institutions. Home care that is practiced is ideal given the cultural scenario especially with the extended family support. Public policies on the care of the elderly however need to be well articulated and implemented. Hypertension was the most frequent medical co-morbidity of the demented subjects and about a third of subjects with AD were hypertensive, which may support vascular hypothesis in AD pathogenesis. The important behavioural disturbances experienced by caregivers and the associated stress levels were highlighted. The model used on the Indianapolis-Ibadan Dementia Study which involves periodic home visits, and empowerment of caregivers through regular meetings is envisaged to make caring for these individuals easier and adaptable in other African communities.

The relationship between plasma and red blood cell neuroleptic levels, oral dosage, and clinical parameters in a chronic schizophrenic population.

Neuroleptic drug levels were determined in plasma and RBC in 63 subjects on various neuroleptic drugs using a radioreceptor binding assay. There was a correlation between oral dose in chlorpromazine equivalents and plasma level (r = 0.31, p less than .01). The correlation between dose and plasma level and ratios of plasma level to dose varied by drug. RBC neuroleptic concentration was not related to dosage. In a group of 25 chronic schizophrenic inpatients, plasma level was significantly curvilinearly related to total BPRS. For subjects with plasma levels below 25 ng haloperidol/ml, BPRS total and thought disorder subscores were negatively correlated to plasma level (p less than 0.02). RBC drug concentration was not related to psychopathology. For six of seven subjects, changes in medication based on plasma level resulted in some clinical improvement. Data are presented on the inter- and intraassay variability and other factors which affect the clinical usefulness of the radioreceptor assay.

Elevation of choline and glycine in red blood cells of psychiatric patients due to lithium treatment.

Levels of choline (Ch) and glycine (Gly) were determined in red blood cells (RBC) from psychiatric patients who were either on lithium therapy or lithium-free and normal subjects. Subjects were divided into four groups: normal subjects who have never received Li+; Li+ free affective patients; Li+ free patients with various psychiatric disorders; and affective patients under Li+ treatment. The patient groups included affective, schizophrenic, schizo-affective disorders, as well as patients with organic brain syndrome and Cornelia de Lange syndrome. In general, all patients on therapeutic dosages of Li+ had significantly higher levels of Ch in RBC when compared to Li+ free normals or patients. Glycine levels in RBC were also significantly higher in patients on Li+ compared to normals or Li+ free affective disorder patients. Plasma Ch was significantly elevated in patients receiving Li+. There was an apparently predictable time course between cessation of Li+ therapy and decreases in levels of Ch and Gly in RBC to normal levels; in Ch of approximately 30-40 days, in Gly of less than 6 days. There were no significant differences in Ch between Li+ free patients, irrespective of their disorder, and normal subjects. RBC Gly levels were equivalent between normal subjects and Li+ free patients. These data imply that elevations in Gly and Ch are more a function of Li+ therapy than of psychiatric diagnosis.

Biological stress responses in high and low trait anxious students.

In an investigation of biological indicators of stress in normal humans, undergraduate psychology students were differentiated on trait anxiety and assessed under baseline, preexam (stress), and postexam conditions. Assessment at each condition involved drawing 20 ml of blood, followed by self-reporting for selected questionnaires. Self-reports included state anxiety, general psychological symptomatology, dysfunctional attitudes, academic confidence, sleep patterns, and intake of drugs, including alcohol and caffeine. Blood was analyzed for whole blood serotonin content, plasma MHPG, and platelet imipramine binding. Baseline differences between high and low trait anxious students on biological measures were significant only for whole blood serotonin content. Variation across situational conditions was significant for whole blood serotonin, with an increase under the stressful condition for both anxiety groups. Thus, serotonin is highlighted as an important factor in the human response to stress, whereas expected differences in MHPG were not observed. The serotonergic response to stress was not explained by changes in psychological or physical state variables. Changes in serotonin content were positively correlated with changes in platelet imipramine binding.

Psychiatric disorders in African American nursing home residents.

OBJECTIVE: High prevalence rates of psychiatric illness and high levels of behavioral disturbance have been reported in studies of nursing home residents; however, the populations evaluated have been predominantly Caucasian. The aims of the present study were to identify prevalence rates of psychiatric disorders and behavioral disturbances in a sample of African American nursing home residents. METHODS: The authors evaluated 106 African American nursing home residents, aged 65 and over, from a representative sample of nursing homes. The evaluation included informant interview with nursing home staff, cognitive assessment, and a psychiatric interview that included a physical and neurological examination. Consensus diagnoses were reached by using DSM-III-R criteria. RESULTS: Of the 106 subjects, 90% received at least one primary psychiatric diagnosis, and 71% had at least one behavioral problem; dementia was the most common psychiatric diagnosis (68%). Thirty -one percent of the patients were treated with neuroleptic medication; most of these patients received diagnoses of dementia or schizophrenia. Fifteen percent of the patients had been in physical restraints, which correlated with physical disability. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of psychiatric illness in this sample of African American nursing home residents is similar to that reported in previous studies with predominantly Caucasian populations. Behavioral disturbances, while commonly reported, were somewhat less frequent than reported in previous studies.

Prevalence of Alzheimer's disease and dementia in two communities: Nigerian Africans and African Americans.

OBJECTIVE: This article reports on a prevalence study of dementia and Alzheimer's disease among two groups of subjects with the same ethnic background but widely differing environments. METHOD: The study was conducted among residents aged 65 years and older in two communities: Yorubas (N = 2,494) living in Ibadan, Nigeria, and African Americans (N = 2,212 in the community and N = 106 in nursing homes) living in Indianapolis, Indiana. The study design consisted of a screening stage followed by a clinical assessment stage for selected subjects on the basis of their performance on the screening tests. RESULTS: The age-adjusted prevalence rates of dementia (2.29%) and Alzheimer's disease (1.41%) in the Ibadan sample were significantly lower than those in the Indianapolis sample, both in the community-dwelling subjects alone (4.82% and 3.69%, respectively) and in the combined nursing home and community samples (8.24% and 6.24%, respectively). The prevalence rates of dementia and Alzheimer's disease increased consistently with advancing age in both study groups. CONCLUSIONS: To the authors' knowledge, this is the first study, using the same research method at the two sites, to report significant differences in rates of dementia and Alzheimer's disease in two different communities with similar ethnic origins.

Relationship of age, education, and occupation with dementia among a community-based sample of African Americans.

OBJECTIVE: To explore the relationship between age, education, and occupation with dementia among African Americans. DESIGN: Community-based survey to identify subjects with and without evidence of cognitive impairment and subsequent diagnostic evaluation of a stratified sample of these subjects using formal diagnostic criteria for dementia. SETTING: Urban neighborhoods in Indianapolis, Ind. SUBJECTS: A random sample of 2212 African Americans aged 65 years and older residing in 29 contiguous census tracts. MEASUREMENTS: Subjects's scores on the Community Screening Instrument for Dementia (CSI-D), formal diagnostic clinical assessments for dementia, years of education, rural residence, primary occupation, self-reported disease, and alcohol and smoking history. Caseness was defined by four separate criteria: (1) cognitive impairment as defined by the subject's performance on the CSI-D cognitive scale; (2) cognitive impairment as defined by the total CSI-D score that included a relative's assessment of the subject's functional abilities; (3) dementia as defined by explicit diagnostic criteria; and (4) possible or probable Alzheimer's disease as defined by explicit diagnostic criteria. RESULTS: The mean age was 74 years (age range, 65 to 100 years), 65% of subjects were women, the mean education was 9.6 years (age range, 0 to 16 years), 98% of the subjects were literate, and 32% reported living in a rural area until age 19 years. Service, domestic, and production occupations accounted for 55.2% of the subjects' primary occupations with a mean of 25.8 years (range, 1 to 75 years) in the primary occupation. Years of education, rural residence to age 60 years, and primary occupation were highly correlated. Caseness defined by any of the four criteria was associated with functional impairment, but the frequency of impairment increased with increasing diagnostic specificity. Age, education, and rural residence to age 60 years were significantly independently associated with caseness for cognitive impairment, dementia, and Alzheimer's type dementia. White-collar occupation was independently associated only with caseness for cognitive impairment. History of stroke was associated with caseness for cognitive impairment and dementia but not Alzheimer's disease, while history of smoking was negatively correlated with Alzheimer's disease. CONCLUSIONS: Education was independently associated with cognitive impairment and dementia among a representative community-based sample of African Americans and the association remains significant across a variety of sensitivity analyses designed to control for measurement and confounding biases. The potential protective role of education against the development of dementia among African Americans deserves further evaluation.

Low education and childhood rural residence: risk for Alzheimer's disease in African Americans.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationship between level of education and childhood rural residence as possible risk factors for AD in African Americans in Indianapolis. BACKGROUND: Low level of education has been a risk factor for AD in some studies, but childhood rural residence has not been addressed in most of these studies. METHODS: A two-stage community-based prevalence study of AD was conducted in a random sample of 2,212 African Americans > or =65 years of age. A subsample of clinically assessed normal individuals (180) and individuals diagnosed with AD (43) were compared on the variables of rural/urban residence in childhood and low (< or =6 years) or high (> or =7 years) education. A logistic regression model was used with interaction between rural residence and low education to estimate odds ratios for the two risk factors combined, adjusting for age and gender. RESULTS: Odds ratios for AD: 6.5 (95% CI: 2.6 to 16.7) low education/rural residence; 0.5 (95% CI: 0.1 to 2.9) low education/urban residence; 1.5 (95% CI: 0.4 to 5.2) high education/rural residence, comparing with the group of high education/urban residence. CONCLUSION: Childhood rural residence, combined with < or =6 years of school, was associated with an increased risk of AD in this sample. It is possible that low education by itself is not a major risk factor for AD, but, rather, is a marker for other accompanying deleterious socioeconomic or environmental influences in childhood.

Cognitive decline and education in mild dementia.

Recent studies suggested that education may modify the clinical expression of dementia and Alzheimer's disease through its association with a brain reserve capacity. We studied whether education would be related to degree of cognitive decline in mild dementia. Equations to estimate premorbid cognitive ability were derived from a representative normative sample of 83 community-dwelling African Americans using age, education, and gender as independent variables and Word List Learning (WLL) and Animal Fluency (AF) scores from the Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease (CERAD) neuropsychological test battery as dependent variables. These equations were applied to a second sample of 131 African Americans (22 with dementia, 109 healthy) who completed CERAD test batteries as part of an epidemiologic study of dementia in the community. Differences between obtained and estimated premorbid WLL and AF test scores were calculated and then analyzed in a 2 (Education) x 2 (Diagnosis) ANOVA. A significant interaction association between Education and Diagnosis on WLL scores and a borderline significant interaction on AF scores showed that the high-education demented group had a greater cognitive decline from estimated premorbid levels than the low-education demented group. Thus, at comparable levels of clinical dementia severity, greater cognitive decline occurred in highly educated patients than in low-educated patients.

Serum cholesterol, APOE genotype, and the risk of Alzheimer's disease: a population-based study of African Americans.

A significant interaction among total serum cholesterol (TC), APOE genotype, and AD risk was found in a population-based study of elderly African Americans. Increasing TC was associated with increased AD risk in the group with no epsilon4 alleles, whereas TC was not associated with increased AD risk in the group with one or more epsilon4 alleles. Further study of the relationship between cholesterol and APOE genotype is needed to confirm this association, but the results suggest that cholesterol may be a potentially modifiable environmental risk factor for AD.

Prevalence of cognitive impairment: data from the Indianapolis Study of Health and Aging.

BACKGROUND: The epidemiology and natural history of cognitive impairment that is not dementia is important to the understanding of normal aging and dementia. OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence and outcome of cognitive impairment that is not dementia in an elderly African American population. METHOD: A two-phase, longitudinal study of aging and dementia. A total of 2212 community-dwelling African American residents of Indianapolis, IN, aged 65 and older were screened, and a subset (n = 351) received full clinical assessment and diagnosis. Subsets of the clinically assessed were seen again for clinical assessment and rediagnosis at 18 and 48 months. Weighted logistic regression was used to generate age-specific prevalence estimates. RESULTS: The overall rate of cognitive impairment among community-dwelling elderly was 23.4%. Age-specific rates indicate increasing prevalence with increasing age: 19.2% for ages 65 to 74 years, 27.6% for ages 75 to 84 years, and 38.0% for ages 85+ years. The most frequent cause of cognitive impairment was medically unexplained memory loss with a community prevalence of 12.5%, followed by medical illness-associated cognitive impairment (4.0% prevalence), stroke (3.6% prevalence), and alcohol abuse (1.5% prevalence). At 18-month follow-up, 26% (17/66) of the subjects had become demented. CONCLUSIONS: Cognitive impairment short of dementia affects nearly one in four community-dwelling elders and is a major risk factor for later development of dementia.

Cognitive impairment and mortality in older primary care patients.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the impact of cognitive impairment on mortality in older primary care patients after controlling for confounding effects of demographic and comorbid chronic conditions. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SETTING: Academic primary care group practice. PARTICIPANTS: Three thousand nine hundred and fifty-seven patients age 60 and older who completed the Short Portable Mental Status Questionnaire (SPMSQ) during routine office visits. MEASUREMENTS: Cognitive impairment measured at baseline using the SPMSQ, demographics, problem drinking, history of smoking, clinical data (including weight, cholesterol level, and serum albumin), and comorbid chronic conditions collected at baseline; survival time measured during the 5 to 7 years after baseline. RESULTS: Eight hundred and eighty-six patients (22.4%) died during the 5 to 7 years of follow-up. Cognitive impairment was categorized as having no impairment (84.3%), mild impairment (10.5%), and moderate-to-severe impairment (5.2%) based on SPMSQ score. Chi-square tests revealed that patients with moderate-to-severe impairment were significantly more likely to die compared with patients with mild impairment (40.8% vs 21.5%) and those with no impairment (40.8% vs 21.4%). No significant difference in crude mortality was found between patients with no impairment and those with mild impairment. After analyzing time to death using the Kaplan-Meier method, patients with moderate-to-severe cognitive impairment were at increased risk of death compared with those with no or mild impairment (Log-rank chi(2) = 55.5; P <.0001). Even in multivariable analyses using Cox proportional hazards to control for confounding factors, compared with those with no impairment, moderately-to-severely impaired patients had an increased risk of death, with a hazard ratio (HR) of 1.70. Increased risk of death was also associated with older age (HR = 1.03 for each year), a history of smoking (HR = 1.48), having a serum albumin level <3.5 g/L (HR = 1.29), and weighing less than 90% of the ideal body weight (HR = 1.98). Outpatient diagnoses associated with increased mortality risk were diabetes mellitus, coronary artery disease, congestive heart failure, cerebrovascular disease, cancer, anemia, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (HR range 1.36-1.67). Factors protective of mortality risk included female gender (HR = 0.67) and black race (HR = 0.73). CONCLUSIONS: Moderate-to-severe cognitive impairment is associated with an increased risk of mortality, even after controlling for confounding effects of demographic and clinical characteristics. Mild cognitive impairment is not associated with mortality risk, but a longer follow-up period may be necessary to identify this risk if it exists.

The relationship between alcohol consumption, cognitive performance, and daily functioning in an urban sample of older black Americans.

OBJECTIVE: To report on moderate alcohol consumption and measurements of cognitive function and activities of daily living in an older, urban, community-dwelling sample of black Americans. DESIGN: As part of a community prevalence study of dementia, information on alcohol consumption and cognitive performance was collected on 2040 randomly selected black subjects living in Indianapolis. MEASUREMENTS: From questions in the screening interview, alcohol consumption was grouped into four categories: lifetime abstainers, regular drinkers less than 4 drinks per week, 4 to 10 drinks per week, and more than 10 drinks per week. Current and past drinkers were analyzed separately. Three measurements were used: (1) a total cognitive score; (2) the delayed recall score from the East Boston Memory Test; (3) a score for daily functioning based upon information from the informant. Multiple regression models were fitted with drinking variables as the major predictor, including covariates of age, gender, education, history of stroke, hypertension, being treated for depression, and a family history of dementia. MAIN RESULTS: In all analyses, there was a very consistent pattern for both current and past drinkers. There was a small but significant dose effect of drinking for the drinkers, with subjects in the heaviest drinking category scoring poorest, i.e., lowest scores in cognitive tests and highest scores in scales of daily functioning indicating more impairment. The scores of abstainers were worse than those of subjects in the lightest drinking category. The pattern of scores for cognitive performance and daily functioning was similar between current and past drinkers. These patterns remained the same even after potential confounders were included. CONCLUSIONS: Previous research on effects of alcohol on health indices have suggested a J-shaped relationship between amounts of alcohol consumption and measurements of heart disease, stroke, and mortality rates. Our study provides some support for the concept of a similar J-shaped relationship between cognitive performance and alcohol consumption, but the differences between drinking categories were modest and the clinical significance of these findings uncertain.

Suicidal ideation among older primary care patients.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the prevalence and sociodemographic and clinical correlates of suicidal ideation among older primary care patients. DESIGN: Baseline screening for depressive symptoms, functional status, and suicidal ideation, with prospective assessment of mortality. SETTING: An academic primary care group practice at an ambulatory care clinic. PARTICIPANTS: 301 patients who screened positive for depression and a random sample of 101 patients who screened negative from among 3767 patients aged 60 and older who completed screening for depression during routine office visits. MEASUREMENTS: Centers for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D) scale, Hamilton Depression Rating (HAM-D) scale, Sickness Impact Profile (SIP), structured psychiatric interview, sociodemographic and clinical variables, and mortality. RESULTS: Among the 301 patients with CES-D scores > or = 16, 14 (4.6%) reported suicidal ideation and received urgent evaluation by mental health professionals. The estimated prevalence of suicidal ideation in this cohort of older primary care patients was 0.7 to 1.2%. All patients with suicidal ideation had evidence of a current affective disorder, and nearly all had moderate to severe functional impairment. However, even though all 14 patients endorsed suicidal ideation, corresponding HAM-D scores ranged from 3 to 40, and only four of 14 met diagnostic criteria for major depression. The most common suicide plan involved use of a hand gun. Depressed patients with suicidal ideation did not differ significantly from depressed non-suicidal patients on any of the following variables: age, gender, race, education, alcohol abuse, cognitive impairment, or mean CES-D, HAM-D, or SIP scores. None of the suicidal patients had died within 12 months of the screening date. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of suicidal ideation was about 1% among this cohort of older primary care patients, and the prevalence approaches 5% among those older adults who report significant symptoms of depression. However, asking patients directly about the presence of active suicidal ideation appears to be the only effective means of identifying those at risk.

Foci of increased T2 signal intensity in MR images of healthy elderly subjects. A follow-up study.

An 18-month follow-up study was conducted on 26 healthy elderly subjects with and without foci of increased T2 signal intensity on MR imaging. The subjects did not differ with respect to health status or cognitive performance as measured by the Cognitive Subscale of the Cambridge Mental Disorders of the Elderly Examination and the Mini Mental State Examination at follow-up. There was a significant decline in performance on the Digit Symbol Substitution Test in subjects who had evidence of T2 foci compared to the performance of subjects without T2 foci. This may indicate that the presence of T2 foci is correlated with subtle difficulties in learning and memory.