Evolution of genetic networks underlying the emergence of thymopoiesis in vertebrates.

About 500 million years ago, a new type of adaptive immune defense emerged in basal jawed vertebrates, accompanied by morphological innovations, including the thymus. Did these evolutionary novelties arise de novo or from elaboration of ancient genetic networks? We reconstructed the genetic changes underlying thymopoiesis by comparative genome and expression analyses in chordates and basal vertebrates. The derived models of genetic networks were experimentally verified in bony fishes. Ancestral networks defining circumscribed regions of the pharyngeal epithelium of jawless vertebrates expanded in cartilaginous fishes to incorporate novel genes, notably those encoding chemokines. Correspondingly, novel networks evolved in lymphocytes of jawed vertebrates to control the expression of additional chemokine receptors. These complementary changes enabled unprecedented Delta/Notch signaling between pharyngeal epithelium and lymphoid cells that was exploited for specification to the T cell lineage. Our results provide a framework elucidating the evolution of key features of the adaptive immune system in jawed vertebrates.

Scenarios for the making of vertebrates.

Over the past 200 years, almost every invertebrate phylum has been proposed as a starting point for evolving vertebrates. Most of these scenarios are outdated, but several are still seriously considered. The short-range transition from ancestral invertebrate chordates (similar to amphioxus and tunicates) to vertebrates is well accepted. However, longer-range transitions leading up to the invertebrate chordates themselves are more controversial. Opinion is divided between the annelid and the enteropneust scenarios, predicting, respectively, a complex or a simple ancestor for bilaterian animals. Deciding between these ideas will be facilitated by further comparative studies of multicellular animals, including enigmatic taxa such as xenacoelomorphs.

Serial block-face scanning electron microscopy of the tail tip of post-metamorphic amphioxus finds novel myomeres with odd shapes and unusually prominent sclerocoels.

Serial block-face scanning electron microscopy of the tail tip of post-metamorphic amphioxus (Branchiostoma floridae) revealed some terminal myomeres never been seen before with other techniques. The morphology of these myomeres differed markedly from the chevron shapes of their more anterior counterparts. Histologically, these odd-shaped myomeres ranged from empty vesicles bordered by undifferentiated cells to ventral sacs composed of well-developed myotome, dermatome, and sclerotome. Strikingly, several of these ventral sacs gave rise to a nipple-like dorsal projection composed either entirely of sclerotome or a mixture of sclerotome and myotome. Considered as a whole, from posterior to anterior, these odd-shaped posterior myomeres suggested that their more substantial ventral part may represent the ventral limb of a chevron, while the delicate projection represents a nascent dorsal limb. This scenario contrasts with formation of chevron-shaped myomeres along most of the antero-posterior axis. Although typical chevron formation in amphioxus is surprisingly poorly studied, it seems to be attained by a dorso-ventral extension of the myomere accompanied by the assumption of a V-shape; this is similar to what happens (at least superficially) in developing fishes. Another unusual feature of the odd-shaped posterior myomeres of amphioxus is their especially distended sclerocoels. One possible function for these might be to protect the posterior end of the central nervous system from trauma when the animals burrow into the substratum.

The Rohde-like cells at the posterior end of the dorsal nerve cord of amphioxus (Cephalochordata).

For postmetamorphic specimens of amphioxus (Cephalochordata), serial block-face scanning electron microscopy (SBSEM) is used to describe the long-ignored Rohde-like cells (RLCs) at the extreme posterior end of the dorsal nerve cord. These cells, numbering about three dozen in all, are divisible into a group with larger diameters running near the dorsal side of the cord and a more ventral group with smaller diameters closely associated with the central canal of the neurocoel. It is possible that the smaller ventral cells might be generated at the ependymal zone of the dorsal nerve cord and later migrate to a dorsal position, although a functional reason for this remains a mystery. All the RLCs have conspicuous regions of microvilli covering as much as 40% of their surface; limited data (by others) on the more anterior bona fide Rohde cells also indicate an extensive microvillar surface. Thus, both the RLCs and the better-known Rohde cells appear to be rhabdomeric photoreceptors, although a specific function for this feature is currently unknown. Even more perplexingly, although the Rohde cells are quintessential neurons extending giant processes, each RLC comprises a perikaryon that does not bear any neurites.

Asymmetric segregation of maternal mRNAs and germline-related determinants in Cephalochordate embryos: implications for the evolution of early patterning events in chordates.

How animal embryos determine their early cell fates is an important question in developmental biology. In various model animals asymmetrically localized maternal transcripts play important roles in axial patterning and cell fate specification. Cephalochordates (amphioxus), which have three living genera (Asymmetron, Epigonichthys, Branchiostoma), are an early branching chordate lineage and thus occupy a key phylogenetic position for understanding the evolution of chordate developmental mechanisms. It has been shown that in the zygote of Brachiostoma amphioxus, which possess bilateral gonads flanking both sides of their trunk region, maternal transcripts of germline determinants form a compact granule. During early embryogenesis this granule is inherited by a single blastomere that subsequently gives rise to a cluster of cells displaying typical characteristics of primordial germ cells (PGC). These PGCs then come to lie in the tailbud region and proliferate during posterior elongation of the larva to join in the gonad anlagen at the ventral tip of the developing myomeres in amphioxus larvae. However, in Asymmetron and Epigonichthys amphioxus, whose gonads are present only on the right side of their body, nothing is known about their PGC development or the cellular/morphogenetic processes resulting in the asymmetric distribution of gonads. Using conserved germline determinants as markers, we show that similarly to Brachiostoma amphioxus, Asymmetron also employ a preformation mechanism to specify their PGCs, suggesting that this mechanism represents an ancient trait dating back to the common ancestor of Cephalochordates. Surprisingly, we found that Asymmetron PGCs are initially deposited on both sides of the body during early larval development; however, the left side PGCs cease to exist in young juveniles, suggesting that PGCs are eliminated from the left body side during larval development or following metamorphosis. This is reminiscent of the PGC development in the sea urchin embryo, and we discuss the implications of this observation for the evolution of developmental mechanisms.

Axial patterning in cephalochordates and the evolution of the organizer.

The organizer of the vertebrate gastrula is an important signalling centre that induces and patterns dorsal axial structures. Although a topic of long-standing interest, the evolutionary origin of the organizer remains unclear. Here we show that the gastrula of the cephalochordate amphioxus expresses dorsal/ventral (D/V) patterning genes (for example, bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), Nodal and their antagonists) in patterns reminiscent of those of their vertebrate orthlogues, and that amphioxus embryos, like those of vertebrates, are ventralized by exogenous BMP protein. In addition, Wnt-antagonists (for example, Dkks and sFRP2-like) are expressed anteriorly, whereas Wnt genes themselves are expressed posteriorly, consistent with a role for Wnt signalling in anterior/posterior (A/P) patterning. These results suggest evolutionary conservation of the mechanisms for both D/V and A/P patterning of the early gastrula. In light of recent phylogenetic analyses placing cephalochordates basally in the chordate lineage, we propose that separate signalling centres for patterning the D/V and A/P axes may be an ancestral chordate character.

In Amphioxus Embryos, Some Neural Tube Cells Resemble Differentiating Coronet Cells of Fishes and Tunicates.

AbstractFor neurula embryos of amphioxus (chordate subphylum Cephalochordata), the anterior region of the neural tube was studied with transmission electron microscopy. This survey demonstrated previously unreported cells, each characterized by a cilium bearing on its shaft a protruding lateral bubble packed with vesicles. Such cilia resemble those known from immature coronet cells in other chordates-namely, fishes in the Vertebrata and ascidians and appendicularians in the Tunicata. This wide occurrence of coronet-like cells raises questions about their possible homologies within the phylum Chordata. When considered at the level of the whole cell, such homology is not well supported. For example, the fish cells are generally thought to be glia, while the tunicate cells are considered to be neurons; moreover, cytoplasmic smooth endoplasmic reticulum, which is predominant in the former, is undetectable in the latter. In contrast, a more convincing case for homology can be made by limiting comparisons to the cell apices with their modified cilia. In addition to the fine-structural similarities between fishes and tunicates already mentioned, nonvisual opsins have been found associated with the vesicles in the modified cilia of both groups. Such opsins are thought to link photoreception to endocrine output controlling behavior. Further work would be needed to test the idea that the amphioxus diencephalic cells with lateral bubble cilia might similarly be opsin rich and could provide insights into the evolutionary history of the coronet cells within the phylum Chordata.

Cephalochordate Hemocytes: First Demonstration for Asymmetron lucayanum (Bahamas Lancelet) Plus Augmented Description for Branchiostoma floridae (Florida Amphioxus).

AbstractWithin phylum Chordata, the subphylum Cephalochordata (amphioxus and lancelets) has figured large in considerations of the evolutionary origin of the vertebrates. To date, these discussions have been predominantly based on knowledge of a single cephalochordate genus (Branchiostoma), almost to the exclusion of the other two genera (Asymmetron and Epigonichthys). This uneven pattern is illustrated by cephalochordate hematology, until now known entirely from work done on Branchiostoma. The main part of the present study is to describe hemocytes in the dorsal aorta of a species of Asymmetron by serial block-face scanning electron microscopy. This technique, which demonstrates three-dimensional fine structure, showed that the hemocytes have a relatively uniform morphology characterized by an oval shape and scanty cytoplasm. Ancillary information is also included for Branchiostoma hemocytes, known from previous studies to have relatively abundant cytoplasm; our serial block-face scanning electron microscopy provides more comprehensive views of the highly variable shapes of these cells, which typically extend one or several pseudopodium-like protrusions. The marked difference in hemocyte morphology found between Asymmetron and Branchiostoma was unexpected and directs attention to investigating comparable cells in the genus Epigonichthys. A broader knowledge of the hemocytes in all three cephalochordate genera would provide more balanced insights into the evolution of vertebrate hematopoiesis.

Diversification of acorn worms (Hemichordata, Enteropneusta) revealed in the deep sea.

Enteropneusts (phylum Hemichordata), although studied extensively because of their close relationship to chordates, have long been considered shallow-water, burrowing animals. The present paper more than doubles the number of enteropneust species recorded in the deep sea based on high-resolution imaging and sampling with remotely operated vehicles. We provide direct evidence that some enteropneusts are highly mobile-using changes in posture and currents to drift between feeding sites-and are prominent members of deep, epibenthic communities. In addition, we provide ecological information for each species. We also show that despite their great morphological diversity, most deep-living enteropneusts form a single clade (the rediagnosed family Torquaratoridae) on the basis of rDNA sequences and morphology of the proboscis skeleton and stomochord. The phylogenetic position of the torquaratorids indicates that the group, after evolving from near-shore ancestors, radiated extensively in the deep sea.

The invertebrate chordate amphioxus gives clues to vertebrate origins.

Amphioxus (cepholochordates) have long been used to infer how the vertebrates evolved from their invertebrate ancestors. However, some of the body part homologies between amphioxus and vertebrates have been controversial. This is not surprising as the amphioxus and vertebrate lineages separated half a billion years ago-plenty of time for independent loss and independent gain of features. The development of new techniques in the late 20th and early 21st centuries including transmission electron microscopy and serial blockface scanning electron microscopy in combination with in situ hybridization and immunocytochemistry to reveal spatio-temporal patterns of gene expression and gene products have greatly strengthened inference of some homologies (like those between regions of the central nervous system), although others (like nephridia) still need further support. These major advances in establishing homologies between amphioxus and vertebrates, together with strong support from comparative genomics, have firmly established amphioxus as a stand-in or model for the ancestral vertebrate.

Three-dimensional fine structure of fibroblasts and other mesodermally derived tissues in the dermis of adults of the Bahamas lancelet (Chordata, Cephalohordata), as seen by serial block-face scanning electron microscopy.

Tissues of adult cephalochordates include sparsely distributed fibroblasts. Previous work on these cells has left unsettled such questions as their developmental origin, range of functions, and even their overall shape. Here, we describe fibroblasts of a cephalochordate, the Bahamas lancelet, Asymmetron lucayanum, by serial block-face scanning electron microscopy to demonstrate their three-dimensional (3D) distribution and fine structure in a 0.56-mm length of the tail. The technique reveals in detail their position, abundance, and morphology. In the region studied, we found only 20 fibroblasts, well separated from one another. Each was strikingly stellate with long cytoplasmic processes rather similar to those of a vertebrate telocyte, a possibly fortuitous resemblance that is considered in the discussion section. In the cephalochordate dermis, the fibroblasts were never linked with one another, although they occasionally formed close associations of unknown significance with other cell types. The fibroblasts, in spite of their name, showed no signs of directly synthesizing fibrillar collagen. Instead, they appeared to be involved in the production of nonfibrous components of the extracellular matrix-both by the release of coarsely granular dense material and by secretion of more finely granular material by the local breakdown of their cytoplasmic processes. For context, the 3D structures of two other mesoderm-derived tissues (the midline mesoderm and the posteriormost somite) are also described for the region studied.

Retinoic acid signaling targets Hox genes during the amphioxus gastrula stage: insights into early anterior-posterior patterning of the chordate body plan.

Previous studies of vertebrate development have shown that retinoic acid (RA) signaling at the gastrula stage strongly influences anterior-posterior (A-P) patterning of the neurula and later stages. However, much less is known about the more immediate effects of RA signaling on gene transcription and developmental patterning at the gastrula stage. To investigate the targets of RA signaling during the gastrula stage, we used the basal chordate amphioxus, in which gastrulation involves very minimal tissue movements. First, we determined the effect of altered RA signaling on expression of 42 genes (encoding transcription factors and components of major signaling cascades) known to be expressed in restricted domains along the A-P axis during the gastrula and early neurula stage. Of these 42 genes, the expression domains during gastrulation of only four (Hox1, Hox3, HNF3-1 and Wnt3) were spatially altered by exposure of the embryos to excess RA or to the RA antagonist BMS009. Moreover, blocking protein synthesis with puromycin before adding RA or BMS009 showed that only three of these genes (Hox1, Hox3 and HNF3-1) are direct RA targets at the gastrula stage. From these results we conclude that in the amphioxus gastrula RA signaling primarily acts via regulation of Hox transcription to establish positional identities along the A-P axis and that Hox1, Hox3, HNF3-1 and Wnt3 constitute a basal module of RA action during chordate gastrulation.

Amphioxus postembryonic development reveals the homology of chordate metamorphosis.

Most studies in evolution are centered on how homologous genes, structures, and/or processes appeared and diverged. Although historical homology is well defined as a concept, in practice its establishment can be problematic, especially for some morphological traits or developmental processes. Metamorphosis in chordates is such an enigmatic character. Defined as a spectacular postembryonic larva-to-adult transition, it shows a wide morphological diversity between the different chordate lineages, suggesting that it might have appeared several times independently. In vertebrates, metamorphosis is triggered by binding of the thyroid hormones (THs) T(4) and T(3) to thyroid-hormone receptors (TRs). Here we show that a TH derivative, triiodothyroacetic acid (TRIAC), induces metamorphosis in the cephalochordate amphioxus. The amphioxus TR (amphiTR) mediates spontaneous and TRIAC-induced metamorphosis because it strongly binds to TRIAC, and a specific TR antagonist, NH3, inhibits both spontaneous and TRIAC-induced metamorphosis. Moreover, as in amphibians, amphiTR expression levels increase around metamorphosis and are enhanced by THs. Therefore, TH-regulated metamorphosis, mediated by TR, is an ancestral feature of all chordates. This conservation of a regulatory network supports the homology of metamorphosis in the chordate lineage.

Tail regression induced by elevated retinoic acid signaling in amphioxus larvae occurs by tissue remodeling, not cell death.

The vitamin A derived morphogen retinoic acid (RA) is known to function in the regulation of tissue proliferation and differentiation. Here, we show that exogenous RA applied to late larvae of the invertebrate chordate amphioxus can reverse some differentiated states. Although treatment with the RA antagonist BMS009 has no obvious effect on late larvae of amphioxus, administration of excess RA alters the morphology of the posterior end of the body. The anus closes over, and gut contents accumulate in the hindgut. In addition, the larval tail fin regresses, although little apoptosis takes place. This fin normally consists of columnar epidermal cells, each characterized by a ciliary rootlet running all the way from an apical centriole to the base of the cell and likely contributing substantial cytoskeletal support. After a few days of RA treatment, the rootlet becomes disrupted, and the cell shape changes from columnar to cuboidal. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) shows fragments of the rootlet in the basal cytoplasm of the cuboidal cell. A major component of the ciliary rootlet in amphioxus is the protein Rootletin, which is encoded by a single AmphiRootletin gene. This gene is highly expressed in the tail epithelial cells of control larvae, but becomes downregulated after about a day of RA treatment, and the breakup of the ciliary rootlet soon follows. The effect of excess RA on these epidermal cells of the larval tail in amphioxus is unlike posterior regression in developing zebrafish, where elevated RA signaling alters connective tissues of mesodermal origin. In contrast, however, the RA-induced closure of the amphioxus anus has parallels in the RA-induced caudal regression syndrome of mammals.

'Lophenteropneust' hypothesis refuted by collection and photos of new deep-sea hemichordates.

The deep ocean is home to a group of broad-collared hemichordates--the so-called 'lophenteropneusts'--that have been photographed gliding on the sea floor but have not previously been collected. It has been claimed that these worms have collar tentacles and blend morphological features of the two main hemichordate body plans, namely the tentacle-less enteropneusts and the tentacle-bearing pterobranchs. Consequently, lophenteropneusts have been invoked as missing links to suggest that the former evolved into the latter. The most significant aspect of the lophenteropneust hypothesis is its prediction that the fundamental body plan within a basal phylum of deuterostomes was enteropneust-like. The assumption of such an ancestral state influences ideas about the evolution of the vertebrates from the invertebrates. Here we report on the first collected specimen of a broad-collared, deep-sea enteropneust and describe it as a new family, genus and species. The collar, although disproportionately broad, lacks tentacles. In addition, we find no evidence of tentacles in the available deep-sea photographs (published and unpublished) of broad-collared enteropneusts, including those formerly designated as lophenteropneusts. Thus, the lophenteropneust hypothesis was based on misinterpretation of deep-sea photographs of low quality and should no longer be used to support the idea that the enteropneust body plan is basal within the phylum Hemichordata.

Cephalochordates: A window into vertebrate origins.

How vertebrates evolved from their invertebrate ancestors has long been a central topic of discussion in biology. Evolutionary developmental biology (evodevo) has provided a new tool-using gene expression patterns as phenotypic characters to infer homologies between body parts in distantly related organisms-to address this question. Combined with micro-anatomy and genomics, evodevo has provided convincing evidence that vertebrates evolved from an ancestral invertebrate chordate, in many respects resembling a modern amphioxus. The present review focuses on the role of evodevo in addressing two major questions of chordate evolution: (1) how the vertebrate brain evolved from the much simpler central nervous system (CNS) in of this ancestral chordate and (2) whether or not the head mesoderm of this ancestor was segmented.

Tail regeneration in a cephalochordate, the Bahamas lancelet, Asymmetron lucayanum.

Lancelets (Phylum Chordata, subphylum Cephalochordata) readily regenerate a lost tail. Here, we use light microscopy and serial blockface scanning electron microscopy (SBSEM) to describe tail replacement in the Bahamas lancelet, Asymmetron lucayanum. One day after amputation, the monolayered epidermis has migrated over the wound surface. At 4 days, the regenerate is about 3% as long as the tail length removed. The re-growing nerve cord is a tubular outgrowth of ependymal cells, and the new part of the notochord consists of several degenerating lamellar cells anterior to numerous small vacuolated cells. The cut edges of the mesothelium project into the regenerate as tubular extensions. These tubes anastomose with each other and with midline mesodermal canals beneath the regenerating edges of the dorsal and ventral fins. SBSEM did not reveal a blastema-like aggregation of undifferentiated cells anywhere in the regenerate. At 6 days, the regenerate (10% of the amputated tail length) includes a notochord in which the small vacuolated cells mentioned above are differentiating into lamellar cells. At 10 days, the regenerate is 22% of the amputated tail length: myocytes have appeared in the walls of the myomeres, and sclerocoels have formed. By 14 days, the regenerate is 35% the length of the amputated tail, and the new tissues resemble smaller versions of those originally lost. The present results for A. lucayanum, a species regenerating quickly and with little inter-specimen variability, provide the morphological background for future cell-tracer, molecular genetic, and genomic studies of cephalochordate regeneration.

Retinoic acid and Wnt/beta-catenin have complementary roles in anterior/posterior patterning embryos of the basal chordate amphioxus.

A role for Wnt/beta-catenin signaling in axial patterning has been demonstrated in animals as basal as cnidarians, while roles in axial patterning for retinoic acid (RA) probably evolved in the deuterostomes and may be chordate-specific. In vertebrates, these two pathways interact both directly and indirectly. To investigate the evolutionary origins of interactions between these two pathways, we manipulated Wnt/beta-catenin and RA signaling in the basal chordate amphioxus during the gastrula stage, which is the RA-sensitive period for anterior/posterior (A/P) patterning. The results show that Wnt/beta-catenin and RA signaling have distinctly different roles in patterning the A/P axis of the amphioxus gastrula. Wnt/beta-catenin specifies the identity of the ends of the embryo (high Wnt = posterior; low Wnt = anterior) but not intervening positions. Thus, upregulation of Wnt/beta-catenin signaling induces ectopic expression of posterior markers at the anterior tip of the embryo. In contrast, RA specifies position along the A/P axis, but not the identity of the ends of the embryo-increased RA signaling strongly affects the domains of Hox expression along the A/P axis but has little or no effect on the expression of either anterior or posterior markers. Although the two pathways may both influence such things as specification of neuronal identity, interactions between them in A/P patterning appear to be minimal.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has failed to distinguish between smaller gut regions and larger haemal sinuses in sea urchins (Echinodermata: Echinoidea).

A response to Ziegler A, Faber C, Mueller S, Bartolomaeus T: Systematic comparison and reconstruction of sea urchin (Echinoidea) internal anatomy: a novel approach using magnetic resonance imaging. BMC Biol 2008, 6: 33.

Serial blockface SEM suggests that stem cells may participate in adult notochord growth in an invertebrate chordate, the Bahamas lancelet.

BACKGROUND: The cellular basis of adult growth in cephalochordates (lancelets or amphioxus) has received little attention. Lancelets and their constituent organs grow slowly but continuously during adult life. Here, we consider whether this slow organ growth involves tissue-specific stem cells. Specifically, we focus on the cell populations in the notochord of an adult lancelet and use serial blockface scanning electron microscopy (SBSEM) to reconstruct the three-dimensional fine structure of all the cells in a tissue volume considerably larger than normally imaged with this technique. RESULTS: In the notochordal region studied, we identified 10 cells with stem cell-like morphology at the posterior tip of the organ, 160 progenitor (Müller) cells arranged along its surface, and 385 highly differentiated lamellar cells constituting its core. Each cell type could clearly be distinguished on the basis of cytoplasmic density and overall cell shape. Moreover, because of the large sample size, transitions between cell types were obvious. CONCLUSIONS: For the notochord of adult lancelets, a reasonable interpretation of our data indicates growth of the organ is based on stem cells that self-renew and also give rise to progenitor cells that, in turn, differentiate into lamellar cells. Our discussion compares the cellular basis of adult notochord growth among chordates in general. In the vertebrates, several studies implied that proliferating cells (chordoblasts) in the cortex of the organ might be stem cells. However, we think it is more likely that such cells actually constitute a progenitor population downstream from and maintained by inconspicuous stem cells. We venture to suggest that careful searches should find stem cells in the adult notochords of many vertebrates, although possibly not in the notochordal vestiges (nucleus pulposus regions) of mammals, where the presence of endogenous proliferating cells remains controversial.