Dietary fat intake, circulating and membrane fatty acid composition of healthy Norwegian men and women.

BACKGROUND: The present study aimed to assess the dietary fat intake and blood fatty acid status of healthy Norwegian men and women living in Bergen whose habitual diet is known to be high in long-chain omega-3 fat. METHODS: Healthy men (n = 41) and women (n = 40) aged 20-50 years who were regular blood donors completed 7-day food diaries and their nutrient intake was analysed by Norwegian food database software, kbs, version 4.9 (kostberegningssystem; University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway). Blood samples were obtained before blood donation and assessed for the fatty acid composition of plasma triglycerides and cholesterol esters, phosphatidylcholine, and red cell phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine. RESULTS: There was no difference in dietary fat intake between men and women. Total and saturated fat intakes exceeded the upper limits of the recommendations of the National Nutrition Council of Norway. Although polyunsaturated fat intake was close to the lower limit of the recommended level, the intake varied greatly among individuals, partly as a result of the use of supplementary fish oil. Moreover, the proportional fatty acid composition of plasma and red cell lipids was similar between men and women. Enrichment of docosahexaenoic acid in red cell phosphatidylethanolamine was found in fish oil users. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the present study provide a snapshot of the current nutritional status of healthy Norwegian adults. Moreover, the detailed blood fatty acid composition of men and women whose habitual diet constitutes high long-chain polyunsaturated omega-3 fat as well as saturated fat could be used as reference value for population studies.

Phospholipase D activity in human platelets is inhibited by protein kinase A, involving inhibition of phospholipase D1 translocation.

Phospholipase D hydrolyzes phosphatidylcholine to phosphatidic acid and choline. It is established that thrombin induces PLD activation in human platelets. We found recently that two isoforms of PLD, PLD1 and PLD2 are present in platelets and these become translocated to the plasma membrane area upon thrombin activation. Since cAMP is a negative regulator in platelets, we measured the effect of the platelet antagonists PGE(1) and forskolin (both of which raise intracellular cAMP levels) on PLD activity in resting and thrombin-activated platelets. We found that both PGE(1) and forskolin inhibited thrombin-induced PLD activation by 40-50%, but interestingly PGE(1) caused a modest elevation of PLD activity in resting platelets. Further studies using inhibitors as well as specific activators of protein kinases A and G suggest a role for PKA in the inhibition of thrombin-activated PLD. We found that PGE(1), forskolin and the PKA activator inhibited PLD1 translocation in thrombin-stimulated platelets, and that the PKG-activator had no effect. The present results suggest a role for PKA in the regulation of thrombin-induced PLD1 activity and translocation in platelets.

Phospholipase D in human platelets: presence of isoenzymes and participation of autocrine stimulation during thrombin activation.

Phospholipase D (PLD), which hydrolyzes phosphatidylcholine to phosphatidic acid (PA) and choline, is present in human platelets. Thrombin and other agonists have been shown to activate PLD but the precise mechanisms of activation and PLDs role in platelet activation remains unclear. We measured thrombin-stimulated PLD activity in platelets as formation of phosphatidylethanol. Since no specific PLD inhibitors exist, we investigated possible roles for PLD in platelets by correlating PLD activity with platelet responses such as thrombin-mediated secretion and F-actin formation (part of platelet shape change). Extracellular Ca2+ potentiated thrombin-stimulated PLD, but did not stimulate PLD in the absence of thrombin. Thrombin-induced PLD activity was enhanced by secreted ADP and binding of fibrinogen to its receptors. In contrast to others, we also found a basal PLD activity. Comparison of time courses and dose responses of platelets with PLD showed many points of correlation between PLD activation and lysosomal secretion and F-actin formation. The finding of different PLD activities suggested that different PLD isoenzymes exist in platelets as reported for other cells. Here we present evidence for the presence of both PLD1 and PLD2 in platelets by use of specific antibodies with immunoblotting and immunohistochemistry. Both isoforms were randomly localized in resting platelets, but became rapidly translocated to the proximity of the plasma membrane upon thrombin stimulation, thus indicating a role for PLD in platelet activation.

Phospholipase D in platelets and other cells.

Phospholipase D (PLD) hydrolyses phosphatidylcholine to phosphatidic acid (PA) and choline, where PA is considered to be the main effector of PLD's functions in cells. PA can act as a second messenger itself or as a precursor for Diacylglycerols (DAG) and lyso-PA. PA is reported to be involved in protein recruitment in membranes and membrane fusion processes, and PLD is proposed to play a role in signalling, intracellular transport and cytoskeletal rearrangements in cells. Protein kinase C (PKC), small G proteins and phosphatidylinositol-(4,5)-bis-phosphate (PIP(2)) are all central in the regulation of PLD activity; however, PLD has also been shown to be regulated by Ca(2+), protein tyrosine kinases and other kinases. Two isoforms of PLD have been cloned, PLD1 and 2, which are also present in platelets. In vitro PLD1 has a low basal activity and is readily activated by PKC, Adenosine diphosphate(ADP)-ribosylation factor (ARF) and Rho family members, while in contrast PLD2 shows a constitutive high basal activity and is not as easily activated by the factors mentioned above. The two PLD isoforms may have different localization and play different roles in cells. The role and regulation of PLD in platelets are largely unknown. However, PLD in platelets is activated by physiological activators like thrombin and collagen and inhibited by PKA, implying that PLD is involved in established signalling pathways in these cells. Activation by thrombin is stimulated by extracellular Ca(2+) and accompanied by translocation from cytosol to the plasma membrane area. Thrombin-induced PLD activity is dependent of autocrine stimulation. Possible roles for PLD in platelets include lysosomal secretion and actin polymerization. In this review we present the knowledge of PLD from other cells together with findings from platelets and demonstrate that PLD in platelets seems to have much of the same properties as in other cells, which implies that knowledge on PLD from other cells can be used in identifying activation mechanisms and roles in platelets.

Specific correction of impaired acid hydrolase secretion in storage pool-deficient platelets by adenosine diphosphate.

Storage pool-deficient (SPD) platelets, which have decreased amounts of dense-granule and/or alpha-granule constituents, contain normal amounts of lysosomal acid hydrolases, but in some cases exhibit impaired secretion of these enzymes. We examined this impaired secretion response in SPD patients with varying extents of granule deficiencies, and determined the effects of added dense-granule constituents. Acid hydrolase secretion was impaired in patients with severe dense-granule deficiencies, but not in patients with lesser dense-granule deficiencies, including those with alpha-granule deficiencies as well. When dense-granule constituents (ADP, ATP, serotonin, Ca+2, pyrophosphate) were added to gel-filtered platelets, ADP, but none of the other constituents, completely corrected the impairment of thrombin and A23187-induced secretion in SPD platelets. The concentration of ADP required to normalize thrombin-induced secretion varied markedly, from 0.01 to 10 microM, among the individual patients. Fixation of platelets with formaldehyde before centrifugation did not prevent the enhancement of secretion by ADP. Excess ATP, which acts as a specific antagonist of ADP-mediated responses, completely blocked this enhancement of secretion in SPD platelets by ADP, and partially inhibited acid hydrolase secretion induced by low, but not high, concentrations of thrombin in normal platelets as well. Treatment of normal platelets with acetylsalicylic acid in vivo, but not in vitro, produced an impairment of acid hydrolase secretion similar in extent to that in SPD platelets, but which could not be completely corrected by added ADP. One possible explanation of these results is that the impairment of acid hydrolase secretion may be secondary to the dense-granule deficiency in SPD platelets, and that secreted ADP may potentiate the lysosomal secretion response in normal platelets as well.

Adenine nucleotide metabolism of blood platelets. X. Formaldehyde stops centrifugation-induced secretion after A23187-stimulation and causes breakdown of metabolic ATP.

A23187 induced shape change, aggregation and secretion of platelets in plasma. When rapid cooling was used to stop secretion and centrifugation to separate the cells from the medium, maximal amounts of storage ATP plus ADP and preadsorbed [14C]serotonin were found in the supernatant immediately (less than 5 s) after A23187 addition. These results suggested that A23187 could cause shape change and aggregation through secreted ADP and not directly. When secretion was stopped with chilling and formaldehyde treatment before centrifugation, the secreted substances appeared after a lag of 60-120 s, i.e. after shape change was terminated and aggregation was well on its way. These two platelet responses thus seemed to be independent of secretion and induced directly by A23187. The absence of a lag period when secretion was stopped by chilling alone was thought to be due to centrifugation-induced secretion of platelets conditioned by A23187. Formaldehyde completely inhibited centrifugation-induced secretion. At 37 degrees C, formaldehyde caused rapid breakdown of metabolic ATP in platelets with a pattern dependent on the formaldehyde concentration: Below 50 mM, ATP was converted to inosine plus hypoxanthine via ADP, AMP and IMP and the adenylate energy charge was preserved. Above 100 mM, AMP was the end product with a drastic reduction in the adenylate energy charge. These changes were not due to lysis of the platelets, but were apparently caused by an formaldehyde-induced increase in cellular ATP consumption. Platelet secretion is usually associated with a conversion of metabolic ATP to hypoxanthine. Formaldehyde had to be used to stop secretion and since it caused breakdown of ATP, additional smaples were taken out for nucleotide determination during stirring of platelet-rich plasma with A23187. It was found that metabolic ATP was converted to inosine plus hypoxanthine only during the secretion step.

Phosphate turnover of phosphatidylinositol in resting and thrombin-stimulated platelets.

Human platelets were pulse-labelled with [32P]Pi and extracts were analyzed for masses and radioactivities of ATP and phosphoinositides. Immediately after pulse-labelling, the specific 32P radioactivity of phosphatidylinositol (PI) was only 3.4% of that of the gamma-phosphoryl of ATP. Upon incubation of the platelets at 37 degrees C, the specific 32P radioactivity of ATP (beta- and gamma-phosphoryls) remained constant. However, specific 32P radioactivity in PI increased continuously to 17% of specific [gamma-32P]ATP at 90 min of incubation. Stimulation with 0.5 U/ml of thrombin induced a 35% decrease in mass of PI which was unaffected by the time after the pulse-labelling. In contrast, the thrombin-induced changes in [32P]PI differed markedly at the various times after the [32P]Pi-pulse. Immediately after pulse-labelling, [32P]PI initially decreased but increased thereafter to 260% of control values after 180 s. With increasing specific 32P-radioactivity in PI before stimulation, the thrombin-induced increase in [32P]PI gradually disappeared. After 90 min of incubation, thrombin induced a continuous decrease in [32P]PI that almost parallelled mass. The data are explained by an initial breakdown of PI to diacylglycerol through the PI cycle or the polyphosphoinositide cycle, followed by resynthesis of PI through phosphatidic acid. In contrast to pre-existing PI, the resynthesized PI is in full isotopic equilibrium with ATP. This allowed us to estimate that 14% of the PI that is consumed between 30 and 180 s of stimulation, is recycles. From our data we calculate that the rate of PI resynthesis increased from 2.4 to 20 nmol/min per 10(11) cells upon thrombin stimulation of platelets.

Neomycin inhibits PDGF-induced IP3 formation and DNA synthesis but not PDGF-stimulated uptake of inorganic phosphate in C3H/10T1/2 fibroblasts.

Porcine PDGF was found to increase [3H]inositol trisphosphate, [3H]thymidine incorporation and 32P-labelling of polyphosphoinositides in C3H/10T1/2 Cl 8 fibroblasts. These responses to PDGF stimulation were all inhibited by 5 mM neomycin, a polycationic aminoglycoside formerly known to inhibit polyphosphoinositide turnover. PDGF also markedly increased the cellular uptake of inorganic [32P]Pi. This response of PDGF was not inhibited by neomycin (5 mM). Thus, neomycin inhibited PDGF-induced IP3 formation, 32P-labelling of polyphosphoinositides and DNA synthesis, but not cellular uptake of inorganic phosphate. These effects of neomycin suggest a bifurcation of the initial part of the PDGF-induced signal transduction, separating at the receptor level or before phospholipase C activation.

Studies on the preferential incorporation of [3H]glycerol over [32P]phosphate into major phospholipids of human platelets.

It is well known that platelets readily incorporate radioactive glycerol, but not radioactive phosphate into phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) in vitro, thus not in accordance with de novo synthesis according to the Kennedy pathway. In attempts to understand the reason for the discrepancy, gel-filtered platelets were incubated simultaneously with [32P]Pi and [3H]glycerol, and the specific and relative radioactivities of products and intermediates were determined. Both precursors were incorporated into phosphatidylinositol (PI) with a 32P/3H ratio similar to that in glycerol 3-phosphate (in accordance with the Kennedy pathway). However, PC and PE obtained a much lower ratio. The specific 32P radioactivity in phosphorylcholine was similar to that of the gamma-phosphoryl of ATP and 650-times higher than that of PC. The specific 32P radioactivity of phosphorylethanolamine was 20-times less than that of phosphorylcholine. Both mass and 32P labelling of CDP-choline were below the detection limits. It is concluded that the incorporation of [32P]Pi into PC via phosphorylcholine is insignificant while the preferential incorporation of [3H]glycerol could be explained by exchange of diacyl[3H]glycerol in the reversible choline phosphotransferase (CDP-choline: 1,2-diacylglycerol cholinephosphotransferase) reaction. The same mechanism would explain the preferential incorporation of 3H over 32P into PE, although dilution of 32P at the phosphorylethanolamine stage would account for part of the feeble 32P incorporation. Although other mechanisms are also possible, our results clearly show that the appearance of [3H]glycerol in PC and PE is not a reliable method of monitoring de novo synthesis of these phospholipids.

Adenine nucleotide metabolism of blood platelets. IX. Time course of secretion and changes in energy metabolism in thrombin-treated platelets.

Changes in the energy metabolism of washed human platelets were compared with the kinetics of secretion induced by thrombin (5 units/ml). A 50% decrease in the level of metabolic ATP (3H-labelled), which was essentially complete in 30s, was matched in rate by adenine nucleotide secretion from storage in dense granules. Incubation of platelets with antimycin before thrombin addition increased the rate of fall in metabolic ATP, but did not affect the rate of adenine nucleotide secretion. beta-N-Acetylglucosaminidase secretion, which was slower than adenine nucleotide secretion in control platelets, was noticeably inhibited by antimycin, confirming previous reports that different regulatory mechanisms exist for dense and alpha-granule secretion. The rates of rephosphorylation of metabolic ADP to ATP via glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation were estimated by measuring lactate production and O2 consumption in resting and thrombin-stimulated platelets and compared to the level of metabolic ATP (9-10 nmol/mg of platelet protein in the resting state). The rate of ATP production was stimulated at least two fold from 12 nmol to 24 nmol/min/mg within seconds of thrombin addition. This increased rate was maintained over the observed period of 5 min although the level of metabolic ATP had decreased to 4-5 nmol/mg within 30 s; the turnover of the remaining metabolic ATP thus increased four fold over the resting state although the actual stimulation of energy production was only two fold.

Elevation of cyclic AMP decreases phosphoinositide turnover and inhibits thrombin-induced secretion in human platelets.

Elevation of cyclic AMP (cAMP) in platelets inhibits agonist-induced, G protein-mediated responses and activation of polyphosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C (PLC) by ill-defined mechanism(s). Signal transduction steps downstream of PLC are inhibited by elevated cAMP, suggesting an inhibitory effect of cAMP, via protein kinase A, on PLC. In [32P]i-prelabeled platelets, forskolin increased intracellular cAMP (104 nmol/1011 cells at 10-5 M forskolin) and [32P]phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (Delta[32P]PIP) (30% at 10-7-10-6 M forskolin). The thrombin-induced (0.1 U/ml) increase in production of [32P]PA, 'overshoots' in [32P]PIP and [32P]PIP2 ([32P]phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate), and the increase in [32P]PI and secretion of ADP+ATP were abolished by forskolin (10-7 M). Forskolin stimulated total [32P]Pi uptake in resting platelets (48%), increased 32P incorporation into PIP (110%), and inhibited 32P incorporation into PI (50%). The latter inhibition was most likely considerably greater due to the forskolin-induced stimulation of [32P]Pi uptake. The changes in radioactive PA, PIP and PIP2 are regarded as being proportional with their masses in the prelabeled platelets, while the increase in PI (phosphatidylinositol) is regarded as a change in specific radioactivity, and hence in its synthesis. The results suggest that cAMP elevation inhibits the flux in the polyphosphoinositide cycle through both inhibition of PIP 5-kinase and PI synthesis. The inverse relation between forskolin-produced DeltaPIP and [32P]PA production suggests that the PLC reaction is inhibited by elevated cAMP through reduction of substrate (PIP2) resynthesis, and not by inhibition of the PLC enzyme.

Thrombin-induced oxygen consumption, malonyldialdehyde formation and serotonin secretion in human platelets.

The relationship of a thrombin-induced burst in O2 consumption to lipid peroxidation in washed human platelets was investigated by measuring malonyldialdehyde, a by-product of endoperoxide degradation in platelets. The ratio of O2 consumed by malonyldialdehyde produced was approximately 7:1. Acetylsalicylate blocked the formation of malonyldialdehyde completely and partially inhibited the O2 burst induced by thrombin. 5,8,11,14-Eicosatetraynoic acid inhibited the O2 burst as well as the malonyldialdehyde formation completely. The release of [14C]serotonin was not affected by either inhibitor.

Radioactive labeling of the adenine nucleotide pool of cells as a method to distinguish among intracellular compartments. Studies on human platelets.

The study of adenine nucleotide metabolism is complicated by cellular nucleotide compartmentalization. In platelets, we have been able to use radioactive labeling with adenine to measure, precisely and accurately, changes in the cytoplasmic/mitochondrial pool of adenine nucleotides inspite of the fact that 60% of adenine nucleotides are present in amine-storing granules. High performance liquid chromatography was used to measure the concentrations of ATP, ADP, AMP and IMP from [14C]adenine-labeled platelets under conditions where the granule pool was absent. The radioactive measurements were directly proportional to the chemical measurements. Ethanol-insoluble, actin-bound ADP also had the same specific radioactivity as other metabolic adenine nucleotides. Since this pool can be directly separated from the bulk of cellular nucleotides, its specific radioactivity can be easily measured and used to calculate the concentration of each cytoplasmic adenine nucleotide from its measured radioactivity. These methods may be applicable to other cells.

A monoclonal antibody against PDGF B-chain inhibits PDGF-induced DNA synthesis in C3H fibroblasts and prevents binding of PDGF to its receptor.

A monoclonal antibody (MAb 6D11) against platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) was studied. We found that the MAb 6D11 in concentrations equimolar to PDGF blocked the [3H]thymidine incorporation in C3H/10T1/2 C18 fibroblasts stimulated by PDGF B-B and PDGF A-B. This inhibition was overcome by high doses of PDGF. The [3H]thymidine incorporation stimulated by other growth factors (aFGF, bFGF and bombesin) was not inhibited by the antibody. The MAb 6D11 blocked receptor binding of PDGF B-B, but not PDGF A-A. These findings suggest that the MAb 6D11 abolishes PDGF-induced DNA synthesis by blocking PDGF receptor binding. In this communication we demonstrate an isoform-specific monoclonal antibody against PDGF.

Cytoplasmic free calcium concentration in porcine platelets. Regulation by an intracellular nonmitochondrial calcium pump and increase after thrombin stimulation.

Mechanisms are assumed to exist in the resting platelet which maintain the concentration of cytoplasmic free calcium below that level required to activate cellular responses. To assess such processes the porcine platelet plasma membrane was selectively lysed with digitonin and the uptake (or flux) of free calcium monitored by an extracellular calcium electrode. Lysis resulted in an immediate lowering of the extracellular free calcium, due to the action of intracellular organelle(s) acting on the extracellular space through the permeabilized plasma membrane. In resting platelets, the rate of calcium uptake was first order with respect to the extracellular prelytic calcium concentration, and hence the cytoplasmic free concentration was found to be 1 X 10(-7) M by extrapolation to a point of zero flux (i.e., the null point). This approach could not be used with thrombin-stimulated platelets, as external calcium was required for both secretion of ATP + ADP and aggregation. Nevertheless, evidence for an increase in cytoplasmic free calcium after thrombin stimulation was obtained. Metabolic inhibitors and agents known to inhibit calcium uptake by mitochondria had no effect on the calcium flux following lysis, indicating different mechanisms for calcium homeostasis in the platelet when compared with other cell types (e.g., liver). Levels of ionophore A23187, which caused platelet aggregation, gave a massive release of the nonmitochondrial pool of calcium into the cytoplasmic space. Thus, in porcine platelets an intracellular energy-requiring calcium pump, which sequesters calcium in a nonmitochondrial membranous compartment, is crucial for intracellular calcium homeostasis.

Close correlation between platelet responses and adenylate energy charge during transient substrate depletion.

The relation between availability of metabolic energy and thrombin-induced platelet aggregation and secretion was investigated in a system of transient substrate depletion followed by restoration of ATP resynthesis. Substrate depletion induced a fall in the concentration of metabolic ATP and in the adenylate energy charge and a concurrent decline in aggregation and secretion of dense and alpha-granule contents. Restoration of energy generation completely restored the adenylate energy charge and restored aggregation and secretion, but led to incomplete recovery of the ATP concentration. A close correlation between the adenylate energy charge and aggregation and between the adenylate energy charge and the secretion of dense and alpha-granule contents could be demonstrated. No such correlation existed between these responses and the concentration of ATP. These results show that the adenylate energy charge monitors an energetic condition which is crucial for preservation of platelet aggregation and secretion of dense and alpha-granule contents.

Alterations in 32P-labelled intermediates during flux activation of human platelet glycolysis.

Using a newly developed isotopic tracer technique for the measurement of 32P-labelled intermediates in glycolysis and nucleotide metabolism in platelets, we studied the variations in 32P-labelled intermediates during activation of the glycolytic flux by cyanide and platelet-activating agents. The major variations occurred in [32P]Fru-1,6-P2, dihydroxy acetone phosphate, ATP and Pi. There was a quantitative covariance between the increase in lactate production and the rise in [32P]Fru-1,6-P2 induced by different platelet-activating agents. In contrast, cyanide induced weaker activation of the flux and greater accumulation of [32P]Fru-1,6-P2. Variations in 32P-labelled intermediates were apparent 5 s after flux activation, but the major changes in [32P]Fru-1,6-P2 occurred much later and fell in periods in which a constant lactate formation was maintained. The cyanide-induced changes in 32P-labelled intermediates depended on the extracellular level of glucose, showing a predominant ATP----Pi conversion in glucose-depleted medium that shifted to an ATP----Fru-1,6-P2 conversion at excess glucose. At about 50 microM glucose, flux activation occurred without major changes in [32P]Fru-1,6-P2, dihydroxy acetone phosphate and Pi, with only a small fall in [32P]ATP. The data provide evidence for a role of the aldolase reaction in flux control and demonstrate rapid changes in Fru-1,6-P2 and ATP during flux activation with an additional role for Fru-1,6-P2 as an energy buffer during post-activation periods.

Transport and metabolism of adenosine in human blood platelets.

The uptake and metabolism of [14C]- or E[3H] adenosine have been studied in suspensions of washed platelets and in platelet rich plasma. The appearance of radioactivity in the platelets and the formation of radioactive adenosine metabolites have been used to determine the uptake. Adenosine is transported into human blood platelets by two different systems: a low Km system (9.8 muM) which is competitively inhibited by papaverine, and a high Km system (9.4 mM) which is competitively inhibited by adenine. Adenosine transported via the low Km system is probably directly incorporated into adenine nucleotides, while adenosine transported through the high Km system arrives unchanged inside the platelet and is then converted into inosine and hypoxanthine or incorporated into adenine nucleotides.

On the effect of 2-deuterium- and 2-methyl-eicosapentaenoic acid derivatives on triglycerides, peroxisomal beta-oxidation and platelet aggregation in rats.

A series of 2-substituted eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) derivatives (as ethyl esters) have been synthesized and evaluated as hypolipidemic and antithrombotic agents in feeding experiments in rats. Repeated administration of purified 2-methyl-eicosapentaenoic acid and its deuterium analogues (all as ethyl esters) to rats resulted in a decrease in plasma triglycerides and high density lipoprotein cholesterol. The 2-methyl-EPA analogues were, apparently, four times more potent than EPA in inducing the triglyceride lowering effect. The 2-deuterium-2-methyl-EPA decreased plasma cholesterol level to approximately 40%. A moderate enlargement of the liver was observed in 2-methyl-EPA treated rats. This was accompanied with an acute reduction in the liver content of triglycerides and a stimulation of peroxisomal beta-oxidation and fatty acyl-CoA oxidase activity. The results suggest that the triglyceride-lowering effect of 2-methyl-EPA may be due to a reduced supply of fatty acids for hepatic triglyceride biosynthesis because of increased fatty acid oxidation. Platelet aggregation with ADP and A23187 was performed ex vivo in platelet-rich plasma, after administration of different doses of the EPA-derivatives for five days. EPA and 2,2-dideuterium EPA had no effect on ADP-induced aggregation, while 2-deuterium-, 2-methyl- and 2-deuterium-2-methyl EPA produced a biphasic effect, i.e. potentiation and inhibition at low (250 mg/day kg body weight) and higher doses (600-1300 mg/day kg body weight), respectively. A23187-induced platelet aggregation was affected in a similar way by feeding the 2-substituted EPA derivatives, except that 2-deuterium-2-methyl EPA had no effect relative to EPA itself and that the inhibition was far greater than that for ADP-induced aggregation (approximately 100% inhibition with 600 mg 2-methyl-EPA/day kg body weight). The ranking order of the EPA-derivatives to affect platelet aggregation and to cause hypolipidemia was different, suggesting different mechanisms. Our observations suggest that the effects of the EPA derivatives on platelet aggregation could be related to the degree of bulkiness around C2 and that an asymmetric substitution at C2 caused inhibition of platelet aggregation while a symmetric substitution did not. It is suggested that the bulky, asymmetric derivatives inhibit platelet aggregation by altering platelet membrane phospholipid packing.

Chlorpromazine interaction with glycerophospholipid liposomes studied by magic angle spinning solid state (13)C-NMR and differential scanning calorimetry.

Phosphatidylserine (PS) extracted from pig brain and synthetic dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) and dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC) were used to make DPPC/DMPC and DPPC/PS large unilamellar liposomes with a diameter of approximately 1 microm. Chlorpromazine-HCl (CPZ), an amphipathic cationic psychotropic drug of the phenothiazine group, is known to partition into lipid bilayer membranes of liposomes with partition coefficients depending on the acyl chain length and to alter the bilayer structure in a manner depending on the phospholipid headgroups. The effects of adding CPZ to these membranes were studied by differential scanning calorimetry and proton cross polarization solid state magic angle spinning (13)C-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (CP-MAS-(13)C-NMR). CP-MAS-(13)C-NMR spectra of the DPPC (60%)/DMPC (40%) and the DPPC (54%)/DMPC (36%)/CPZ (10%) liposomes, show that CPZ has low or no interaction with the phospholipids of this neutral and densely packed bilayer. Conversely, the DPPC (54%)/PS (36%)/CPZ (10%) bilayer at 25 degrees C demonstrates interaction of CPZ with the phospholipid headgroups (PS). This CPZ interaction causes about 30% of the acyl chains to enter the gauche conformation with low or no CPZ interdigitation among the acyl chains at this temperature (25 degrees C). The DPPC (54%)/PS (36%)/CPZ (10%) bilayer at a sample temperature of 37 degrees C (T(C)=31.2 degrees C), shows CPZ interdigitation among the phospholipids as deduced from the finding that approximately 30% of the phospholipid acyl chains carbon resonances shift low-field by 5-15 ppm.