Limbic seizures increase neuronal production of messenger RNA for nerve growth factor.

Nerve growth factor (NGF) produced by telencephalic neurons provides critical trophic support for cholinergic neurons of the basal forebrain. In situ hybridization and nuclease protection analyses demonstrate that limbic seizures dramatically increase the amount of messenger RNA for NGF in the neurons of the hippocampal dentate gyrus within 1 hour of seizure onset and in broadly distributed neocortical and olfactory forebrain neurons some hours later. The increased messenger RNA species is indistinguishable from messenger RNA for transcript B of the beta subunit of NGF from mouse submandibular gland. Thus, the expression of a known growth factor is affected by unusual physiological activity, suggesting one route through which trophic interactions between neurons in adult brain can be modified.

BDNF mRNA expression is increased in adult rat forebrain after limbic seizures: temporal patterns of induction distinct from NGF.

We have localized brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) mRNA in rat brain and examined its regulation by seizure activity. In situ hybridization of BDNF 35S-cRNA most prominently labeled neurons in hippocampal stratum pyramidale and stratum granulosum, superficial olfactory cortex, pyramidal cell layers of neocortex, amygdala, claustrum, endopiriform nucleus, anterior olfactory nucleus, and ventromedial hypothalamus. Hybridization to BDNF mRNA was markedly increased in all of these regions after lesion-induced recurrent limbic seizures and within dentate gyrus granule cells following one electrically stimulated epileptiform afterdischarge. In contrast to seizure-elicited changes in nerve growth factor (NGF) mRNA expression, increases in BDNF mRNA occur in a greater number of different neuronal populations and develop several hours more rapidly in extrahippocampal loci. These results indicate that regulation by physiological activity may be an intrinsic property of this class of neurotrophic factor but that, in the recurrent seizure paradigm, different mechanisms mediate increased expression of mRNAs for BDNF and NGF outside hippocampus.

Statin therapy depresses total body fat oxidation in the absence of genetic limitations to fat oxidation.

Cholesterol lowering drugs are associated with myopathic side effects in 7% of those on therapy, which is reversible in most, but not all patients. This study tested the hypothesis that total body fat oxidation (TBFO) is reduced by statins in patients with genetic deficiencies in FO, determined by white blood cells (FOwbc) and by molecular analysis of common deficiencies, and would cause intolerance in some patients. Six patients on statin therapy without myopathic side effects (tolerant) and 7 patients who had previously developed statin-induced myopathic symptoms (intolerant) (age = 58 +/- 8.25 yrs, ht. = 169 +/- 11 cm, and wt. = 75.4 +/- 14.2 kg) were tested for TBFO (Respiratory Exchange Ratio, RER) pre- and during exercise. FOwbc was not significantly different between tolerant and intolerant (0.261 +/- 0.078 vs. 0.296 +/- 0.042 nmol/h per 10(9) wbc), or normals (0.27 +/- 0.09 nmol/h per 10(9) wbc) and no common molecular abnormalities were found. Pre-exercise RER (0.73 +/- 0.05 vs. 0.84 +/- 0.05) was significantly lower in the intolerant group and the VO2 at RER = 1.0 (1.27 +/- 0.32 vs. 1.87 +/- 0.60 L/min) greater than the tolerant. Post-exercise lactates were not different between groups. Although dietary fat intake was not different, blood lipoprotein levels, particularly triglycerides were 35% lower in tolerant than previously intolerant. TBFO and blood lipoproteins were reduced in tolerant patients in spite of the absence of genetic limitations, but not in the intolerant group as hypothesized. Although not conclusive, these data suggest the need for a prospective study of the effects of statins on fat oxidation.

Trophic factor response to neuronal stimuli or injury.

Neurotrophic factors are produced by CNS neurons, and have both paracrine and autocrine activities. In nerve cells, expression of neurotrophic factors is regulated by physiological afferent activity, which implies that these factors play a role in activity-dependent plasticity and survival. Neurotrophic factor levels are also altered following injury, which suggests that they play a part in the neurodegenerative response and synaptic reorganization as well. Recent studies have examined extensively the regulation and functional roles of the neurotrophin family, and have also identified other neurotrophic factors present in brain that are regulated by different, as well as similar mechanisms.

Differential expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, neurotrophin-3, and neurotrophin-4/5 in the adult rat spinal cord: regulation by the glutamate receptor agonist kainic acid.

Previous in vitro studies indicate that select members of the neurotrophin gene family, namely brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), neurotrophin-3 (NT-3), and neurotrophin-4/5 (NT-4/5), contribute to survival and differentiation of spinal cord motoneurons. To investigate the potential roles of these factors in the adult spinal cord, we examined their cellular localization and regulation after systemic exposure to an excitotoxic stimulus, kainic acid (KA). Of the neurotrophins examined, NT-4/5 mRNA was most robustly expressed in the lumbosacral spinal cord of the normal adult rat, including expression by neurons throughout the gray matter, and in a subpopulation of white and gray matter glia. Both BDNF and NT-3 mRNAs were also densely expressed by alpha motoneurons of lamina IX, but were detected at lower levels elsewhere in the gray matter. NT-3 mRNA was additionally expressed by spinal cord glia, but was less widespread compared to NT-4/5. In response to systemic administration of KA, NT-4/5 and BDNF mRNAs were dramatically upregulated in a spatially and temporally restricted fashion, whereas levels of NT-3 mRNA were unchanged. These results provide strong in vivo evidence to support the idea that BDNF, NT-3, and in particular, NT-4/5, play a role in the normal function of the adult spinal cord. Furthermore, our results indicate that the actions of BDNF and NT-4/5 participate in the response of the cord to excitotoxic stimuli, and that those of NT-4/5 and NT-3 include both neurons and glia.

Removal of degradation products from calf thymus high mobility group non-histone chromatin proteins by chromatography on immobilized double-stranded DNA.

The substantial protease activity in calf thymus chromatin inevitably produces some degradation of high mobility group (HMG) non-histone proteins in NaCl extracts of calf thymus chromatin. We have found that proteins considered to be degradation products can be conveniently and cleanly separated from intact high mobility group proteins 1 and 2 by chromatography on double-stranded DNA-cellulose in 0.2 M NaCl/1 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5). Under those conditions, only the presumptive degradation products are retained by the column.

Production of HMG-3 by limited trypsin digestion of purified high-mobility-group nonhistone chromatin proteins.

Three isolated nonhistone proteins (HMG-1, HMG-2 and HMG-E) have been purified from chicken erythrocyte chromatin without exposure to overt denaturing conditions, and subjected to limited proteolysis. When treated with trypsin, the three proteins exhibited similar patterns of degradation, as judged by SDS and acid/urea gel electrophoresis. In particular, the first product, P1 (a relatively stable intermediate in each digestion), was a protein analogous to HMG-3, a principal degradation product in preparations of calf thymus high-mobility-group proteins. At least in the case of HMG-E, the products formed by tryptic attack on P1 are the two individual DNA binding domains of HMG-E. P1 derived from HMG-E and one of the individual DNA binding domains of HMG-E were purified by chromatography on columns containing DNA-cellulose or phosphocellulose. The properties of these two portions of HMG-E are consistent with our recently postulated three-domain structure for HMG-1 and its homologs (Reeck, G.R., Isackson, P.J. and Teller, D.C. (1982) Nature 300, 76-78). Thus, P1 consists of two DNA-binding domains of approximately equal molecular weight covalently linked together. From chromatography on DNA-cellulose columns, it is clear that P1 binds to DNA more tightly than does HMG-E. The highly acidic C-terminal domain of HMG-E (which is removed by trypsin in generating P1) thus counteracts the DNA binding of the two other domains of HMG-E (at least in the protein's interaction with purified DNA).

Synthetic chimeras of mouse growth factor-associated glandular kallikreins. II. Growth factor binding properties.

Six chimeric constructs of the sequentially similar growth factor-associated kallikreins-epidermal growth factor binding protein (EGF-BP) and the gamma-subunit of nerve growth factor (gamma-NGF)--have been expressed, and their ability to generate complexes with epidermal growth factor (EGF) and beta-NGF, analogous to the high molecular weight forms (7S NGF and HMW-EGF) found in the mouse submaxillary gland, evaluated. The chimeras are distinguished by the interchange of three regions composing the amino, middle, and carboxyl terminal regions that encompass four surface loops possibly involved in specific growth factor interactions. Native beta-NGF (along with native alpha-NGF) formed complexes indistinguishable from naturally occurring 7S NGF, characterized by an alpha 2 beta gamma 2 structure (where beta-NGF is itself a dimer), with recombinant (r) gamma-NGF and with a chimera in which the amino terminal region from EGF-BP was substituted. Two other chimeras containing either the middle or carboxyl terminal regions of gamma-NGF showed weaker ability to form 7S complexes. Thus, all chimeras containing two segments from gamma-NGF retained at least some ability to form the 7S complex. rEGF-BP reacted weakly with EGF, but the chimera composed of the amino and middle segments of EGF-BP and the carboxyl terminal segment of gamma-NGF formed a nativelike HMW-EGF complex. None of the other chimeras appeared to bind EGF. These results identify amino acid positions within each kallikrein that participate in strong growth factor interactions and demonstrate that, outside of active site contacts, different regions of the kallikreins are involved in the binding of EGF and beta-NGF, respectively.

Synthetic chimeras of mouse growth factor-associated glandular kallikreins. I. Kinetic properties.

A series of six chimeric proteins, composed of fragments corresponding to either one or the other of the growth factor-associated mouse glandular kallikreins-epidermal growth factor binding protein (EGF-BP) and the gamma-subunit of nerve growth factor (gamma-NGF)--were expressed in Escherichia coli and isolated, and their kinetic properties were characterized. The assembly of these synthetic proteases involved the substitution of regions of the proteins containing four specific surface loops that have been postulated to influence both kinetic specificity and the formation of growth factor complexes. The substrates utilized in the kinetic characterization of these chimeric kallikreins were tripeptide nitroanilides representing carboxyl termini of both the EGF and beta-NGF mature hormones, putative processing sites for these kallikreins in the precursors. Characterization of these hybrid enzymes demonstrates that Km and kcat kinetic constants may be independently affected by the regions utilized in construction of these chimeric kallikreins. Specifically, loop 1, located in the amino terminal region (Bode, W., et al., J. Mol. Biol. 164, 237-282, 1983), in gamma-NGF enhanced the kcat for substrates containing threonine in the P2 position, as is the case during the processing of the carboxy terminus of the beta-NGF precursor. Also, the central regions of the kallikreins containing loop 2 and the kallikrein loop dictated the generally inverted Km and kcat kinetic constants observed between EGF-BP and gamma-NGF. Finally, in gamma-NGF the autolysis loop, found in the carboxyl terminal region, functions to lower the Km kinetic constant for a variety of substrates. The results allow previously characterized kinetic differences between EGF-BP and gamma-NGF to be interpreted in terms of specific regions of the proteins and identify a subset of amino acid positions responsible for these functional characteristics.

Endothelin increases atrial natriuretic peptide production in cultured rat diencephalic neurons.

The vasoactive peptides atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and endothelin have been localized to several areas of the extravascular brain where they are produced in neurons, often overlapping in distribution. Since endothelin has been found to increase ANP secretion from the heart, we examined a possible regulation by endothelin of the secretion and production of ANP in fetal diencephalic cultures of neurons from gestational day 16 rats. Endothelin produced a concentration-related increase in the secretion of ANP. The ability of endothelin to induce ANP secretion was dependent upon calcium, since added nifedipine, a calcium channel blocker, significantly reversed the effects of this vasoconstrictor peptide. ANP 103-126 was the predominant form secreted, as determined by HPLC followed by RIA. The production of this peptide, assessed by specific mRNA expression, was increased more than 2-fold, in dose-related fashion. These studies provide the first evidence that endothelin regulates ANP gene expression in the brain. Additionally, our secretion studies from neurons are consistent with the known stimulatory effects of endothelin on ANP release from the heart. The regulation of ANP production and secretion by the vasoconstrictor peptide endothelin is one level at which ANP and endothelin might interact in the in vivo brain.

Comparison of mammalian, chicken and Xenopus brain-derived neurotrophic factor coding sequences.

We have used the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify and clone coding sequences of the mature region of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) from monkey, rat, chicken and Xenopus genomic DNA. Consistent with previous reports, the predicted amino acid sequences obtained in this manner from monkey and rat were identical to other mammalian BDNF sequences. The chicken and Xenopus BDNF sequences are also highly conserved, but contain 7 and 8 amino acid substitutions, respectively, compared to mammalian BDNF. Comparison of these sequences with the homologous NGF and NT3 coding regions provides further insight into amino acid residues that may be responsible for the different receptor specificities of these factors.

Nerve growth factor mRNA-containing cells are distributed within regions of cholinergic neurons in the rat basal forebrain.

It has been proposed that nerve growth factor (NGF) provides critical trophic support for the cholinergic neurons of the basal forebrain and that it becomes available to these neurons by retrograde transport from distant forebrain targets. However, neurochemical studies have detected low levels of NGF mRNA within basal forebrain areas of normal and experimental animals, thus suggesting that some NGF synthesis may actually occur within the region of the responsive cholinergic cells. In the present study with in situ hybridization and immunohistochemical techniques, the distribution of cells containing NGF mRNA within basal forebrain was compared with the distribution of cholinergic perikarya. The localization o NGF mRNA was examined by using a 35S-labeled RNA probe complementary to rat preproNGF mRNA and emulsion autoradiography. Hybridization of the NGF cRNA labeled a large number of cells within the anterior olfactory nucleus and the piriform cortex as well as neurons in a continuous zone spanning the lateral aspects of both the horizontal limb of the diagonal band of Broca and the magnocellular preoptic nucleus. In the latter regions, large autoradiographic grain clusters labeled relatively large Nissl-pale nuclei; it did not appear that glial cells were autoradiographically labeled. Comparison of adjacent tissue sections processed for in situ hybridization to NGF mRNA and immunohistochemical localization of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) demonstrated overlapping fields of cRNA-labeled neurons and ChAT immunoreactive perikarya in both the horizontal limb of the diagonal band and magnocellular preoptic regions. However, no hybridization of the cRNA probe was observed in other principal cholinergic regions including the medial septum, the vertical limb of the diagonal band, or the nucleus basalis of Meynert.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Acidic fibroblast growth factor mRNA is expressed by basal forebrain and striatal cholinergic neurons.

Evidence for the importance of the basal forebrain cholinergic system in the maintenance of cognitive function has stimulated efforts to identify trophic mechanisms that protect this cell population from atrophy and dysfunction associated with aging and disease. Acidic fibroblast growth factor (aFGF) has been reported to support cholinergic neuronal survival and has been localized in basal forebrain with the use of immunohistochemical techniques. Although these data indicate that aFGF is present in regions containing cholinergic cell bodies, the actual site of synthesis of this factor has yet to be determined. In the present study, in situ hybridization techniques were used to evaluate the distribution and possible colocalization of mRNAs for aFGF and the cholinergic neuron marker choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) in basal forebrain and striatum. In single-labeling preparations, aFGF mRNA-containing neurons were found to be codistributed with ChAT mRNA+ cells throughout all fields of basal forebrain, including the medial septum/diagonal band complex and striatum. By using a double-labeling (colormetric and isotopic) technique, high levels of colocalization (over 85%) of aFGF and ChAT mRNAs were observed in the medial septum, the diagonal bands of Broca, the magnocellular preoptic area, and the nucleus basalis of Meynert. The degree of colocalization was lower in the striatum, with 64% of the cholinergic cells in the caudate and 33% in the ventral striatum and olfactory tubercle labeled by the aFGF cRNA. These data demonstrate substantial regionally specific patterns of colocalization and support the hypothesis that, via an autocrine mechanism, aFGF provides local trophic support for cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain and the striatum.

MSP, a trypsin-like serine protease, is abundantly expressed in the human nervous system.

The goal of the present investigation was to determine the regional and cellular specific expression patterns of the newly identified serine protease, myelencephalon-specific protease (MSP), in the adult human brain (Scarisbrick et al. [1997b] J. Neurosci. 17:8156-8168). To assess the potential scope of MSP activity, Northern blot techniques were used to determine the relative abundance of MSP mRNA in 16 different adult human brain regions, and in the brain and peripheral tissues of the midgestation human fetus. The regional and temporal specific expression patterns of MSP mRNA were directly compared with those of tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a serine protease strongly implicated in the development, ongoing plasticity, and response of the nervous system to injury and disease. mRNA encoding each protease was distributed widely throughout the normal adult human central nervous system (CNS), but the expression of each was only partially overlapping. Additionally, compared with tPA, MSP exhibited a more restricted distribution and delayed developmental onset. By immunohistochemical localization, MSP was present at moderate to high levels in neurons and oligodendroglia of the adult human brain, at a level closely resembling the relative abundance indicated by Northern blot. MSP was most abundantly expressed in the spinal cord, hippocampus, substantia nigra, and basal ganglia. The robust expression of MSP in clinically significant regions of the adult human CNS indicates that further study of this protease in terms of both normal brain physiology and neurodegenerative disorders is warranted.

Cell-specific expression of type II calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase isoforms and glutamate receptors in normal and visually deprived lateral geniculate nucleus of monkeys.

In situ hybridization histochemistry and immunocytochemistry were used to map distributions of cells expressing mRNAs encoding alpha, beta, gamma, and delta isoforms of type II calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMKII), alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazoleproprionate (AMPA)/ kainate receptor subunits, (GluR1-7), and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor subunits, NR1 and NR2A-D, or stained by subunit-specific immunocytochemistry in the dorsal lateral geniculate nuclei of macaque monkeys. Relationships of specific isoforms with particular glutamate receptor types may be important elements in neural plasticity. CaMKII-alpha is expressed only by neurons in the S laminae and interlaminar plexuses of the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus, but may form part of a more widely distributed matrix of similar cells extending from the geniculate into adjacent nuclei. CaMKII-beta, -gamma, and -delta isoforms are expressed by all neurons in principal and S laminae and interlaminar plexuses. In principal laminae, they are down-regulated by monocular deprivation lasting 8-21 days. All glutamate receptor subunits are expressed by neurons in principal and S laminae and interlaminar plexuses. The AMPA/kainate subunits, GluR1, 2, 5, and 7, are expressed at low levels, although GluR1 immunostaining appears selectively to stain interneurons. GluR3 is expressed at weak, GluR 6 at moderate and GluR 4 at high levels. NMDA subunits, NR1 and NR2A, B, and D, are expressed at moderate to low levels. GluR4, GluR6 and NMDA subunits are down-regulated by visual deprivation. CaMKII-alpha expression is unique in comparison with other CaMKII isoforms which may, therefore, have more generalized roles in cell function. The results demonstrate that all of the isoforms are associated with NMDA receptors and with AMPA receptors enriched with GluR4 subunits, which implies high calcium permeability and rapid gating.

Altered mRNA expression for brain-derived neurotrophic factor and type II calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase in the hippocampus of patients with intractable temporal lobe epilepsy.

The expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and the alpha subunit of calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II mRNA in hippocampi obtained during surgical resections for intractable temporal lobe epilepsy were examined. Both calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II and brain-derived neurotrophic factor are localized heavily within the hippocampus and have been implicated in regulating hippocampal activity (Kang and Schuman [1995] Science 267:1658-1662; Suzuki [1994] Intl J Biochem 26:735-744). Also, the autocrine and paracrine actions of brain-derived neurotrophic factor within the central nervous system make it a likely candidate for mediating morphologic changes typically seen in the epileptic hippocampus. Quantitative assessments of mRNA levels in epileptic hippocampi relative to autopsy controls were made by using normalized densitometric analysis of in situ hybridization. In addition, correlations between clinical data and mRNA levels were studied. Relative to autopsy control tissue, decreased hybridization to mRNA of the alpha subunit of calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II and increased hybridization to brain-derived neurotrophic factor mRNA were found throughout the granule cells of the epileptic hippocampus. There also was a significant negative correlation between the duration of epilepsy and the expression of mRNA for brain-derived neurotrophic factor. These results are similar qualitatively to those found in animal models of epilepsy and suggest that chronic seizure activity in humans leads to persistent alterations in gene expression. Furthermore, these alterations in gene expression may play a role in the etiology of the epileptic condition.

Dopaminergic neurons in rat ventral midbrain express brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurotrophin-3 mRNAs.

Studies of the trophic activities of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurotrophin-3 indicate that both molecules support the survival of a number of different embryonic cell types in culture. We have shown that mRNAs for brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurotrophin-3 are localized to specific ventral mesencephalic regions containing dopaminergic cell bodies, including the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area. In the present study, in situ hybridization with 35S-labeled cRNA probes for the neurotrophin mRNAs was combined with neurotoxin lesions or with immunocytochemistry for the catecholamine-synthesizing enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase to determine whether the dopaminergic neurons, themselves, synthesize the neurotrophins in adult rat midbrain. Following unilateral destruction of the midbrain dopamine cells with 6-hydroxydopamine, a substantial, but incomplete, depletion of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurotrophin-3 mRNA-containing cells was observed in the ipsilateral substantia nigra pars compacta and ventral tegmental area. In other rats, combined in situ hybridization and tyrosine hydroxylase immunocytochemistry demonstrated that the vast majority of the neurotrophin mRNA-containing neurons in the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area were tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactive. Of the total population of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive cells, double-labeled neurons constituted 25-50% in the ventral tegmental area and 10-30% in the substantia nigra pars compacta, with the proportion being greater in medial pars compacta. In addition, tyrosine hydroxylase/neurotrophin mRNA coexistence was observed in neurons in other mesencephalic regions including the retrorubral field, interfascicular nucleus, rostral and central linear nuclei, dorsal raphe nucleus, and supramammillary region. The present results demonstrate brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurotrophin-3 expression by adult midbrain dopamine neurons and support the suggestion that these neurotrophins influence dopamine neurons via autocrine or paracrine mechanisms. These data raise the additional possibility that inappropriate expression of the neurotrophins by dopaminergic neurons could contribute to the neuropathology of disease states such as Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia.

Dendritic localization of type II calcium calmodulin-dependent protein kinase mRNA in normal and reinnervated rat hippocampus.

In situ hybridization histochemistry has revealed a diffuse distribution of the alpha subunit of type II calcium calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaM II kinase alpha) mRNA in the neuropil of regions containing CaM II kinase alpha-expressing cells and has led some to propose that it may be expressed in dendrites. In order to determine if CaM II kinase alpha mRNA is expressed in dendrites and if the gene encoding CaM II kinase alpha is regulated in response to synaptic reinnervation, we examined its expression in the hippocampus of normal rats, of rats that had received a unilateral injection of kainic acid and of rats with a unilateral entorhinal cortex lesion. The relatively specific elimination of the CA3 pyramidal cells by kainate lesions precisely correlated with the loss of CaM II kinase alpha cRNA hybridization in the stratum radiatum as well as the stratum pyramidale. Following entorhinal cortex lesions, during the period of new synapse formation in the dentate gyrus, there was no detectable change in the level of CaM II kinase alpha gene expression. These data suggest that CaM II kinase alpha mRNA is expressed in the dendrites of hippocampal pyramidal cells and, therefore, is likely to be expressed in dendrites in other regions of the central nervous system exhibiting CaM II kinase alpha cRNA labeling in the neuropil. However, changes in expression were not found to accompany new synapse formation.

A metabotropic glutamate receptor agonist regulates neurotrophin messenger RNA in rat forebrain.

We have examined the role of metabotropic glutamate receptor activation in regulating neurotrophin messenger RNA levels in the brain with the use of the selective agonist (1S,3R)-1-aminocy-clopentane-1,3-dicarboxylic acid. Intracerebroventricular injection of (1S,3R)-1-aminocyclopentane-1,3-dicarboxylic acid into adult adult rats resulted in increased expression of nerve growth factor and brain-derived neurotrophic factor messenger RNA in the hippocampal and pyriform cortex and decreased levels of neurotrophin-3 messenger RNA in the hippocampal dentate gyrus granule cell layer. C-fos messenger RNA levels were also increased throughout hippocampal and cortical subfields following (1S,3R)-1-aminocyclopentane-1,3-dicarboxylic acid administration. (1S,3R)-1-Aminocyclopentane-1,3-dicarboxylic acid-induced changes in messenger RNA levels occurred without behavioral seizures, yet these changes were similar in magnitude and time course to early changes in neurotrophin and c-fos messenger RNA levels observed following recurrent limbic seizures. In contrast quisqualate, a potent agonist of metabotropic as well as ionotropic kainate/alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionate receptors, was only capable of inducing increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor messenger RNA at doses which produced recurrent motor seizures, and both effects were completely inhibited by the non-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione. Neurotrophin messenger RNA changes induced by (1S,3R)-1-aminocyclopentane-1,3-dicarboxylic acid were also partially susceptible to 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione antagonism, as well as the specific N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist (+)-5-methyl-10,11-dihydroxy-5H-dibenzo(a,d)-cyclohepten-5,10- iminedizoleipine. These results suggest that (1S,3R)-1-aminocyclopentane-1,3-dicarboxylic acid-sensitive metabotropic glutamate receptors can dramatically increase the expression of neurotrophin and c-fos messenger RNAs in rat forebrain without producing significant behavioral trauma and that these influences may involve ionotropic glutamate receptors in certain brain regions.

N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor dependent transcriptional regulation of two calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase type II isoforms in rodent cerebral cortex.

Alpha Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase type II (CaMKII-alpha) expression is regulated in an activity-dependent manner, but it is not known whether other CaMKII isoforms (beta, delta, and gamma) are similarly regulated. We examined the activity-dependent regulation of these CaMKII isoforms in vivo, using a model of generalized seizures caused by i.p. injection of kainic acid. Following seizure induction, CaMKII-alpha expression was downregulated and CaMKII-delta expression upregulated while CaMKII-beta and CaMKII-gamma expression was unaffected. A transient downregulation in CaMKII-alpha and a transient increase in CaMKII-delta occurred throughout neocortex in the same temporal order. Although CaMKII-alpha mRNA was decreased by seizure activity, the less abundant, alternatively spliced, CaMKII-alpha33 mRNA was unaffected. Organotypic cortical slice cultures treated with bicuculline and 4-aminopyridine to induce seizure activity also showed a downregulation of CaMKII-alpha mRNA and an upregulation of CaMKII-delta mRNA. Prior exposure to tetrodotoxin prevented the changes in CaMKII-alpha and CaMKII-delta mRNA regulation and this was mimicked by D-L-2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid, but not by 6-cyano-2,3-dihydroxy-7-nitro-quinoxaline, suggesting that CaMKII-alpha and CaMKII-delta mRNA expression is regulated in an N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor-dependent manner. Regulation was also transcription dependent. Blocking transcription with actinomycin-D prevented activity-dependent changes in CaMKII-alpha and CaMKII-delta mRNA, but produced opposite effects on basal transcription, resulting in more stabilized CaMKII-alpha mRNA and less stabilized CaMKII-delta mRNA. These results reveal unique patterns of seizure-induced alterations in CaMKII mRNAs. Activity-dependent changes in subunit composition could, therefore, differentially influence the functional attributes of the CaMKII holoenzyme.