Constrained evolution of a bispecific enzyme: lessons for biocatalyst design.

One of the central goals of protein design and engineering is to be able to accurately predict the effects of a mutation on stability and activity. However, the genetic context into which mutations are introduced can lead to complex interactions between the mutation and other amino acids and unpredictable, non-additive, effects. This phenomenon is known as intramolecular epistasis and has been shown to restrict evolutionary paths through laboratory directed evolution experiments and ancestral protein reconstruction, but has rarely been studied at a quantitative level in naturally evolving enzymes. Atrazine-specific and atrazine/ametryn bispecific triazine hydrolases (TrzN) have evolved in different bacterial strains over the past fifty years in response to the presence of the synthetic herbicides atrazine and ametryn. Here, we have investigated all 24 evolutionary trajectories that are possible from monofunctional to bispecific TrzN isoforms in terms of activity, stability, expression and structure. The results reveal that half of these trajectories are unviable due to inactive intermediates, with only 1/24 trajectories exhibiting consistent improvement in bispecificity. The most viable path requires the mutation of Gln241 to Glu241 first, which increases activity 3-fold with atrazine and 105-fold with ametryn, which is further optimised in subsequent evolutionary steps. The epistatic interactions between mutations, involving control of the pKa of catalytic residues, the thermostability of the protein, and soluble expression are shown to be responsible for the bottlenecks in this evolutionary landscape. This comprehensive analysis of the evolution of bispecificity highlights the importance of epistasis in protein engineering and evolution, which makes identifying the correct sequence in which to combine mutations extremely important.

SIRT1, a class III histone deacetylase, regulates TNF-α-induced inflammation in human chondrocytes.

OBJECTIVE: The present study was performed to elucidate the possible role of SIRT1 signaling in joint inflammation in human articular chondrocytes. DESIGN: Real-time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and Western blotting were performed to detect gene products and proteins involved in tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α)-induced inflammation and cartilage degradation in human primary chondrocytes. Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and MMP-9 activity was evaluated by gelatin zymography. Overexpression and knockdown of SIRT1 were also performed to investigate whether SIRT1 is associated with the anti-inflammatory activity of resveratrol in chondrocytes. RESULTS: Resveratrol dose-dependently inhibited TNF-α-induced cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), MMP-1, MMP-3, MMP-13 and PGE(2) production in human chondrocytes. Moreover, MMP-2 and MMP-9 activity was increased by treatment with TNF-α; however, SIRT1 activation decreased the proinflammatory effects induced by TNF-α. In addition, treatment of SIRT1 activator and overexpression of SIRT1 inhibited the expression and activation of the main proinflammatory regulator NF-κB, which was increased by TNF-α. When SIRT1 was overexpressed in chondrocytes, the anti-inflammatory action of SIRT1 was similar to that exerted by resveratrol. CONCLUSIONS: SIRT1 activation deacetylates and inactivates NF-κB, and thereby, exerts an anti-inflammatory effect on chondrocytes, suggesting that SIRT1 activators could be explored as potential treatments for arthritis.

Hydrogel oxygen reservoirs increase functional integration of neural stem cell grafts by meeting metabolic demands.

Injectable biomimetic hydrogels have great potential for use in regenerative medicine as cellular delivery vectors. However, they can suffer from issues relating to hypoxia, including poor cell survival, differentiation, and functional integration owing to the lack of an established vascular network. Here we engineer a hybrid myoglobin:peptide hydrogel that can concomitantly deliver stem cells and oxygen to the brain to support engraftment until vascularisation can occur naturally. We show that this hybrid hydrogel can modulate cell fate specification within progenitor cell grafts, resulting in a significant increase in neuronal differentiation. We find that the addition of myoglobin to the hydrogel results in more extensive innervation within the host tissue from the grafted cells, which is essential for neuronal replacement strategies to ensure functional synaptic connectivity. This approach could result in greater functional integration of stem cell-derived grafts for the treatment of neural injuries and diseases affecting the central and peripheral nervous systems.

Conformational sampling, catalysis, and evolution of the bacterial phosphotriesterase.

To efficiently catalyze a chemical reaction, enzymes are required to maintain fast rates for formation of the Michaelis complex, the chemical reaction and product release. These distinct demands could be satisfied via fluctuation between different conformational substates (CSs) with unique configurations and catalytic properties. However, there is debate as to how these rapid conformational changes, or dynamics, exactly affect catalysis. As a model system, we have studied bacterial phosphotriesterase (PTE), which catalyzes the hydrolysis of the pesticide paraoxon at rates limited by a physical barrier-either substrate diffusion or conformational change. The mechanism of paraoxon hydrolysis is understood in detail and is based on a single, dominant, enzyme conformation. However, the other aspects of substrate turnover (substrate binding and product release), although possibly rate-limiting, have received relatively little attention. This work identifies "open" and "closed" CSs in PTE and dominant structural transition in the enzyme that links them. The closed state is optimally preorganized for paraoxon hydrolysis, but seems to block access to/from the active site. In contrast, the open CS enables access to the active site but is poorly organized for hydrolysis. Analysis of the structural and kinetic effects of mutations distant from the active site suggests that remote mutations affect the turnover rate by altering the conformational landscape.

Improvement of Storage Medium for Cultured Human Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells Using Factorial Design.

Storage of human retinal pigment epithelium (hRPE) can contribute to the advancement of cell-based RPE replacement therapies. The present study aimed to improve the quality of stored hRPE cultures by identifying storage medium additives that, alone or in combination, contribute to enhancing cell viability while preserving morphology and phenotype. hRPE cells were cultured in the presence of the silk protein sericin until pigmentation. Cells were then stored for 10 days in storage medium plus sericin and either one of 46 different additives. Individual effects of each additive on cell viability were assessed using epifluorescence microscopy. Factorial design identified promising additive combinations by extrapolating their individual effects. Supplementing the storage medium with sericin combined with adenosine, L-ascorbic acid and allopurinol resulted in the highest cell viability (98.6 ± 0.5%) after storage for three days, as measured by epifluorescence microscopy. Flow cytometry validated the findings. Proteomics identified 61 upregulated and 65 downregulated proteins in this storage group compared to the unstored control. Transmission electron microscopy demonstrated the presence of melanosomes after storage in the optimized medium. We conclude that the combination of adenosine, L-ascorbic acid, allopurinol and sericin in minimal essential medium preserves RPE pigmentation while maintaining cell viability during storage.

African trypanosomiasis in a British soldier.

BACKGROUND: Human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) is a parasitic infection transmitted by day-biting tsetse flies. The diagnostic gold standard is microscopy of blood, lymph node aspirates or CSF. The disease is invariably fatal, if not treated. There are over 300 000 new cases of sleeping sickness each year, and approximately 100,000 deaths. CASE PRESENTATION: We describe a British soldier who acquired trypanosomiasis in Malawi. He gave no history of a painful insect bite but presented with classical early signs of sleeping sickness (a primary chancre, regional lymphadenopathy, circinate erythema and a cyclical fever pattern). His condition worsened in the next week and trypanosomes were observed in a blood sample. He was aeromedically evacuated to Johannesburg, where Stage One Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense infection was confirmed; he also had renal and liver failure, pancytopenia and heart block. He was treated with intravenous suramin. He recovered fully over the next 5 months. RECOMMENDATIONS: Medical officers deploying to eastern and southeastern Africa must be familiar with the common presenting signs and symptoms of T b rhodesiense sleeping sickness, and should have access to a reliable local microscopy service at all times. Confirmed sleeping sickness requires immediate transfer to a tertiary diagnostic and treatment centre, where suramin (for T b rhodesiense infection) or pentamidine (for T b gambiense) and also melarsoprol (for Stage Two disease) must be immediately available.

Effect of activated protein C in second intention healing of equine distal limb wounds: a preliminary study.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effect of activated protein C (APC) on second intention healing of distal limb wounds in horses. METHODS: In this experimental study of eight Standardbred geldings, six full-thickness skin wounds (2 × 1.5 cm) were created on one metacarpus (biopsy limb) and five similar wounds were created on the contralateral metacarpus (photographed limb). Three wounds on the biopsy limb were treated topically with 190 µg APC on days 1, 3, 6 and 9, while the remaining three wounds were untreated (control). One treated and one control wound were biopsied on days 4, 7 and 11 for histopathology. Wounds on the photographed limb were treated with either 66% Manuka honey gel, a commercial antibiotic ointment (bacitracin-neomycin-polymixin B ointment; BNP) or petrolatum daily throughout healing, treated on days 1,3,6 and 9 with 190 µg APC or left untreated. These wounds were digitally photographed and the wound area measured on day 1, then weekly until day 49. Overall time to healing was recorded. RESULTS: There was no effect of APC on wound size, the rate of healing or the overall time to heal. However, compared with control wounds, histological scoring demonstrated enhanced epithelialisation (day 4) and angiogenesis (day 11). Wound healing variables for wounds treated with APC, Manuka honey gel and control wounds were not different and the variables for wounds treated with BNP and petrolatum demonstrated delayed healing. CONCLUSION: The improvements in histological scores in APC-treated wounds suggest further study into the effect of APC on second intention wound healing in horses is warranted.

Human microvascular endothelial cells differ from macrovascular endothelial cells in their expression of matrix metalloproteinases.

Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) secretion by microvascular endothelial cells is an essential first step in the formation of new blood vessels (angiogenesis). Since angiogenesis does not occur in large blood vessels, we investigated whether the secretion of MMPs and tissue inhibitor of MMP (TIMP1) differs between micro- and macro-vascular endothelial cells. We compared the secretion of MMPs and TIMP1 by human endothelial cells derived from neonatal foreskin (FSE) and umbilical vein (HUVE) sources. The cells were incubated for 24 hr in the presence or absence of the angiogenic agents, phorbol myristate acetate (PMA, 100 ng/ml) or tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF, 100 ng/ml). The cell supernatants were removed and assayed for MMPs and TIMP1 using a spectrophotometric assay for MMP1, zymography, Western blotting and Northern analysis. When endothelial cells were incubated in basal medium for 24 hr they secreted MMP1, MMP2 and TIMP1 but not MMP9. HUVE secreted substantially higher levels of these proteins compared to FSE. In addition, HUVE secreted two low molecular mass bands representing activated forms of MMP2. These activated forms were not present in supernatants derived from FSE. In response to PMA, both FSE and HUVE increased secretion of MMP1 and TIMP1. However, there was a dramatic difference in level of response by the two cell types with FSE secreting substantially more TIMP1 and MMP9 compared to HUVE. These data clearly show that cultured endothelial cells derived from microvascular vs macrovascular tissues exhibit different MMP and TIMP secretory profiles.

Three-dimensional collagen matrices induce delayed but sustained activation of gelatinase A in human endothelial cells via MT1-MMP.

Gelatinase A, a member of the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) family, plays an important role during angiogenesis. It is constitutively expressed by human endothelial cells as a latent enzyme and requires activation. Thrombin is the only described physiological inducer of gelatinase A in human endothelial cells. In this study, we investigated the mechanisms of gelatinase A activation by another physiological inducer, collagen. Endothelial cells were cultured on various ECM components for 24 h and the conditioned media were assessed for gelatinase A activity using gelatin zymography. The results demonstrated that type I collagen matrix specifically activates gelatinase A after 24 h in human umbilical vein and 48 h in neonatal foreskin endothelial cells. In contrast, thrombin activated gelatinase A after only 2 h. Activation by collagen was sustained over long periods of time in culture (96 h). Unlike thrombin-induced activation, collagen required active membrane type 1-MMP (MT1-MMP) on the endothelial cell surface to activate gelatinase A. In addition, collagen-induced activation of gelatinase A was inhibited by antibodies to the integrin receptor, alpha(2)beta(1), but not alpha(3)beta(1). Our findings, that collagen can provide long-term activation of gelatinase A are likely to be relevant to endothelial cell invasion during angiogenesis.

Human endothelial gelatinases and angiogenesis.

Endothelial cell invasion is an essential event during angiogenesis (formation of new blood vessels). The process involves the degradation of the basement membrane and the underlying interstitium. The matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) family is considered to be primarily responsible for matrix degradation. Two members of the family, gelatinase A and B play an important role in angiogenesis. This review outlines recent findings on their regulation in human endothelial cells. Latent gelatinase B is secreted from endothelial cells. This enzyme can also accumulate in the cytosol as an active enzyme, free of TIMP-1. In contrast, latent gelatinase A is constitutively secreted from the cells. Unlike other MMPs, gelatinase A activation occurs on the cell membrane and is mediated by MT1-MMP. A number of physiological activators have recently been described. These include thrombin and activated protein C, both of which activate gelatinase A independent of the MT1-MMP pathway. These new findings may lead to therapeutic interventions for the treatment of angiogenic-dependent diseases such as cancer and arthritis.

Tolerogenic polyethylene glycol derivatives of xenogeneic monoclonal immunoglobulins.

It is becoming apparent that the effectiveness of xenogeneic monoclonal antibodies (XIg), which are increasingly used for diverse therapeutic purposes in man, may be counteracted by their inherent immunogenicity. Since conjugates of proteins with monomethoxypolyethylene glycol (mPEG) have proved to be effective tolerogens in other systems, we have used an experimental model in mice to explore the tolerogenicity of mPEG conjugates of a human monoclonal IgG (HIgG), i.e. a myeloma protein. Administration of these conjugates prior to immunization with heat aggregated HIgG (ha-HIgG) resulted in specific tolerance, as manifested by a marked reduction in the level of antibodies to HIgG, which was related to the degree of conjugation and the dose of conjugate administered. Thus, administration of HIgG(mPEG)20 6 to 43 days prior to immunization with ha-HIgG resulted in an inhibition of anti-HIgG antibody formation of the order of 85-90%, in relation to the titres of mice receiving PBS in lieu of HIgG(mPEG)20; these results hold the promise that mPEG conjugates of XIg may prove therapeutically useful in man in relation to organ transplantation, localization of tumours by immuno-imaging and tumour destruction by immunotoxins.

Down-regulation of secondary in vitro antibody responses by suppressor T cells of mice treated with a tolerogenic conjugate of ovalbumin and monomethoxypolyethylene glycol, OVA(mPEG)13.

In previous studies from this laboratory it was shown that OVA(mPEG)n conjugates induced: (i) tolerance in mice with respect to IgG and IgE antibody responses to dinitrophenylated OVA (DNP-OVA); and (ii) OVA-specific suppressor T (Ts) cells which could down-regulate a primary immune response in vivo. For the present study, we have developed an in vitro culture system for assessing the activity of Ts cells of mice tolerized by an OVA(mPEG)13 conjugate. Spleen cells from mice which had been primed with DNP4-OVA in Al(OH)3 gel were cultured with DNP4-OVA to induce a secondary antibody response in vitro. After 6 days, cells secreting anti-DNP antibodies of the IgG1 class were enumerated by an immunoenzymatic plaque-forming cell assay. Addition to the culture of T cells from mice treated with 3 i.p. injections of 500 micrograms of OVA(mPEG)13 resulted in a 29-61% reduction in the number of IgG1 anti-DNP antibody-forming cells, in comparison with the effect of T cells from mice treated with PBS. It was concluded that this tolerogenic conjugate induced splenic Ts cells which were capable of suppressing secondary in vitro anti-DNP responses.

Possible mechanisms of type I collagen-induced vascular tube formation.

UNLABELLED: We investigated the effect of type I collagen on endothelial behaviour following its contact with the apical versus basal surface of cultured human endothelial cells. When endothelial cells were plated onto type I collagen they attached via their basal surface and formed a confluent monolayer. However, when type I collagen (100 micrograms/ml) was added directly to the growth medium, so that it made contact with the apical surface of endothelial cells, it induced rapid capillary-like tube formation. Possible mechanisms were assessed using a) polyclonal (anti-VLA-2) and monoclonal (AK7) antibodies to different epitopes on the alpha 2 beta 1 integrin receptor for collagen and b) drugs (chlorpromazine and trifluoperazine) that inhibit protein kinase C activity. Both anti-VLA-2 and AK7 (1-50 micrograms/ml) showed a dose-dependent inhibition of tube formation and cell attachment. At 50 micrograms/ml, anti-VLA-2 completely inhibited tube formation whereas AK7 caused only partial inhibition (less than 50%). By contrast, AK7 was a more potent inhibitor of cell attachment than anti-VLA-2. Both chlorpromazine and trifluoperazine prevented tube formation. CONCLUSIONS: 1) The alpha 2 beta 1 integrin receptor plays a role in both endothelial cell attachment and the induction of tube formation by type I collagen. 2) Protein kinase C may be involved in collagen-induced tube formation.

In vitro migration of cytotrophoblasts through a decidual endothelial cell monolayer: the role of matrix metalloproteinases.

Deficient trophoblast invasion is a major feature of pre-eclampsia. In vitro studies suggest that in normal pregnancy, maternal cells may play a role in controlling trophoblast invasion, although the exact nature of the regulatory interactions between these cells is not fully understood. To examine the effect of maternal-placental cell interactions on matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) secretion and endovascular cytotrophoblast migration in normal pregnancy and in pre-eclampsia, we performed co-culture experiments using cytotrophoblasts from normal pregnancies, together with decidual endothelial cells from both normal and preeclamptic pregnancies. Cells were incubated on semi-permeable membranes with or without phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA). Results showed that third trimester cytotrophoblasts are migratory under basal conditions and display a different MMP profile from decidual endothelial cells. Co-culture did not damage either cell type and resulted in reduced latent MMP-9 secretion and reduced cytotrophoblast migration. Although PMA upregulated MMPs in decidual endothelial cells, it had no effect on cytotrophoblast MMP secretion. PMA, however, reduced cytotrophoblast migration. Pre-eclamptic decidual endothelial cells showed reduced MMP-1 secretion, but overall were not different in co-culture from normal endothelial cells. This study demonstrates the effectiveness of a bilayer co-culture model to study maternal-foetal cell interactions and provides evidence that maternal cells may contribute to the control of endovascular cytotrophoblast invasion.

Effect of soy protein foods on low-density lipoprotein oxidation and ex vivo sex hormone receptor activity--a controlled crossover trial.

Plant-derived estrogen analogs (phytoestrogens) may confer significant health advantages including cholesterol reduction, antioxidant activity, and possibly a reduced cancer risk. However, the concern has also been raised that phytoestrogens may be endocrine disrupters and major health hazards. We therefore assessed the effects of soy foods as a rich source of isoflavonoid phytoestrogens on LDL oxidation and sex hormone receptor activity. Thirty-one hyperlipidemic subjects underwent two 1-month low-fat metabolic diets in a randomized crossover study. The major differences between the test and control diets were an increase in soy protein foods (33 g/d soy protein) providing 86 mg isoflavones/2,000 kcal/d and a doubling of the soluble fiber intake. Fasting blood samples were obtained at the start and at weeks 2 and 4, with 24-hour urine collections at the end of each phase. Soy foods increased urinary isoflavone excretion on the test diet versus the control (3.8+/-0.7 v 0.0+/-0.0 mg/d, P < .001). The test diet decreased both oxidized LDL measured as conjugated dienes in the LDL fraction (56+/-3 v 63+/-3 micromol/L, P < .001) and the ratio of conjugated dienes to LDL cholesterol (15.0+/-1.0 v 15.7+/-0.9, P = .032), even in subjects already using vitamin E supplements (400 to 800 mg/d). No significant difference was detected in ex vivo sex hormone activity between urine samples from the test and control periods. In conclusion, consumption of high-isoflavone foods was associated with reduced levels of circulating oxidized LDL even in subjects taking vitamin E, with no evidence of increased urinary estrogenic activity. Soy consumption may reduce cardiovascular disease risk without increasing the risk for hormone-dependent cancers.

Effect of soy-based breakfast cereal on blood lipids and oxidized low-density lipoprotein.

Consumption of soy protein may reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease both through reduction in serum lipids and by the antioxidant properties of protein-associated soy isoflavones. However, the effect that processing required for the manufacture of breakfast cereals may have on the lipid lowering and antioxidant activities of soy has not been studied. We have therefore assessed the health benefits of soy incorporation into breakfast cereals. Twenty-five hyperlipidemic men and women took soy (providing 36 g/d soy protein and 168 mg/d isoflavones) and control breakfast cereals, each for 3 weeks in a randomized crossover study with a 2-week washout period between treatments. Fasting blood samples were obtained pretreatment and at weeks 2 and 3 of each treatment. No significant difference was seen in serum lipids between treatments at week 3 apart from a 3.8% +/- 1.5% higher apolipoprotein A-1 level on control versus soy (P = .021). However, oxidized low-density lipoprotein (LDL) was reduced on the test compared with the control both as total dienes in LDL and as the ratio of conjugated dienes to cholesterol in the LDL fraction by 9.2% +/- 4.3% (P = .042) and 8.7% +/- 4.2% (P = .050), respectively. High isoflavone intakes in soy breakfast cereals may decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease by reducing oxidized LDL, while having no significant effect on the absolute concentration of LDL cholesterol.

Bactericidal and inhibitory effects of azole antifungal compounds on Mycobacterium smegmatis.

Azole antifungals are central to therapy and act by inhibiting a cytochrome P450, sterol 14-demethylase and blocking normal sterol synthesis. Our recent identification of a mycobacterial sterol biosynthetic pathway led us to probe the efficacy of a range of these compounds against Mycobacterium smegmatis. Several showed equivalent or greater inhibitory effects to those against Candida albicans, and bactericidal activity was demonstrated for four compounds, clotrimazole, econazole, miconazole and tebuconazole. The major drug used clinically, fluconazole, was ineffective. The results are discussed in the light of the world-wide spread of tuberculosis, including drug-resistant forms and the requirement for new drugs.

Analysis of 2beta-carbomethoxy-3beta-(4-fluorophenyl)-N-(3-iodo-E-allyl)nortropane in rat plasma. II. Pharmacokinetic profile in male and female Sprague-Dawley rats evaluated by capillary electrophoresis.

This paper describes a pharmacokinetic study performed in Sprague-Dawley rats after i.v. administration of a single 6-mg/kg dose of 2beta-carbomethoxy-3beta-(4-fluorophenyl)-N-(3-iodo-E-allyl)nortropane (Altropane). Plasma samples were collected from the retro-orbital sinus at times up to 3 h after drug administration, extracted by solid-phase extraction, and the drug levels determined by capillary electrophoresis (CE). Pharmacokinetic parameters were determined by a standard noncompartmental model using WinNonlin version 1.5. The maximum plasma concentrations, clearances of the drug, and areas under the curve for male and female rats were 5.74 and 7.26 microg/ml, 135.7 and 98.5 ml/kg x min, and 44.23 and 60.92 microg x min/ml, respectively. The drug was cleared very rapidly from the systemic circulation, with a terminal t(1/2) of 7 to 10 min and a mean residence time of about 11 min for both sexes. The volume of distribution was approximately 1 l/kg. No metabolites were detected when the samples were analyzed individually. However, after samples were pooled and concentrated, traces of two unknown peaks that may represent metabolites were detected in concentrates from the last two timepoints. Part I of this work [J. Chromatogr. A, 895 (2000) 87] describes validation of CE methods for the analysis of aqueous and plasma samples of Altropane, including its solid-phase extraction from rat plasma.

A synthesis of dominant ecological processes in intensive shrimp ponds and adjacent coastal environments in NE Australia.

One of the key environmental concerns about shrimp farming is the discharge of waters with high levels of nutrients and suspended solids into adjacent waterways. In this paper we synthesize the results of our multidisciplinary research linking ecological processes in intensive shrimp ponds with their downstream impacts in tidal, mangrove-lined creeks. The incorporation of process measurements and bioindicators, in addition to water quality measurements, improved our understanding of the effect of shrimp farm discharges on the ecological health of the receiving water bodies. Changes in water quality parameters were an oversimplification of the ecological effects of water discharges, and use of key measures including primary production rates, phytoplankton responses to nutrients, community shifts in zooplankton and delta15N ratios in marine plants have the potential to provide more integrated and robust measures. Ultimately, reduction in nutrient discharges is most likely to ensure the future sustainability of the industry.

The structure of the Eysenck Personality Profiler.

The dominant issue in personality research over the last decade has been concerned with the fundamental structure of personality and the best measures of that structure. Exploratory factor analysis was used to investigate possible three- and five-factor solutions to the Eysenck Personality Profiler (EPP; Eysenck, Barrett, Wilson, & Jackson, 1992) which consists of 21 primary scales categorized under three super-factors. Little evidence was found to support Costa and McCrae's (1995) unequivocal comment that a five-factor solution fitted the data well. Confirmatory factor analysis was also used, by means of structural equation modelling, to estimate the goodness of fit of three- and five-factor models and little evidence was found to favour one solution over the other. A shorter version of the EPP, which consists of just nine scales, seemed to favour a three-factor solution. Various criticisms of the EPP are also made: some scales have relatively low alpha, there seem to be too many neuroticism scales and the three category response scales seem less than ideal.