A novel STAT3 inhibitor, STX-0119, attenuates liver fibrosis by inactivating hepatic stellate cells in mice.

Liver fibrosis is characterized by formation of scar tissue in the liver. The role of STAT3 signaling has been implicated on activating hepatic stellate cells (HSC) to myofibroblast-like cells in liver fibrosis. Major factors that activate STAT3 signaling are TGF-ß1 and IL-6, which are upregulated in the liver in patients afflicted with liver fibrosis. Recent reports indicate that not only IL-6, but also the non-canonical signaling pathway of TGF-ß1 is associated with STAT3 signaling. In this study, we demonstrate a new function of the STAT3 inhibitor, STX-0119, in liver fibrosis. STX-0119 is an inhibitor of STAT3 dimerization, which is required for nuclear localization of STAT3. We first investigated the anti-fibrotic effect of STX-0119 in in vitro experiments. Exposure to STX-0119 inhibited the nuclear localization of STAT3 in HSCs, resulting in decreased expression of its target genes, such as col1a1 and αSMA. In addition, STX-0119 also inhibited the TGF-ß1/IL-6-induced activation of HSCs. Next, we examined the in vivo effect of STX-0119 in the liver fibrosis mouse model using thioacetamide (TAA) and carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). STX-0119 attenuated the TAA-induced liver fibrosis by inhibiting activation of HSCs to myofibroblast-like cells. Consistent with the in vivo results using TAA-induced liver fibrosis model, treatment of STX-0119 similarly attenuated CCl4-induced liver fibrosis. In conclusion, we believe that STX-0119 inhibits the development of liver fibrosis by blocking the activation of hepatic stellate cells. These results indicate that STX-0119 is a potential new therapeutic strategy to prevent disease progression to cirrhosis.

Ninjurin1 suppresses metastatic property of lung cancer cells through inhibition of interleukin 6 signaling pathway.

Nerve injury-induced protein 1 (Ninjurin1, Ninj1) is a cell surface molecule that can mediate homophilic adhesion and promote neurite outgrowth from cultured dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons. Interestingly, Ninj1 overexpressed in human cancer; however, its role in metastasis is not clear. This study showed that inhibition of Ninj1 promotes lung cancer metastasis through interleukin 6 (IL-6)/STAT3 signaling. Ninj1 levels were relatively low in highly motile lung cancer cells. While inhibition of Ninj1 enhanced cell migration in lung cancer cells, overexpression of Ninj1 significantly suppressed it. We found that inhibition of Ninj1 significantly increased expression and secretion of IL-6 in A549 cells. We also found that inhibition of IL-6 decreased intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) expression. In addition, inhibition of Ninj1 significantly increased cell motility and invasiveness of lung cancer cells. In an in vivo model, we found that Ninj1 suppression did not affect tumor growth but induced significant increase in incidence of lung metastasis, and sizes and number of tumor nodules. Taken together, our data clearly demonstrate that Ninj1 suppresses migration, invasion and metastasis of lung cancer via inhibition of the IL-6 signaling pathway in vitro and in vivo.

Temporal expression profiles of ceramide and ceramide-related genes in wild-type and mPer1/mPer2 double knockout mice.

Most living organisms exhibit circadian rhythms in physiology and behavior. These oscillations are generated by an endogenous circadian clock and control many biological processes. Ceramide has attracted attention as a signal mediator in diverse cell processes including cell death and differentiation. The relationships between ceramide expression levels and the circadian clock have not previously been investigated. To determine if there are circadian variations in the content of ceramide, we measured ceramide concentrations in the livers of wild-type (WT) and mPer1/mPer2 double knockout (DKO) mice. The ceramide concentration in WT mice was dramatically increased at Zeitgeber Time 9 (ZT9; 9 h after lights-on time) and ZT21 but no rhythmicity in ceramide expression was seen in DKO mice. Because ceramide can be generated by the hydrolysis of sphingomyelin via sphingomyelinase (SMase), or by ceramide synthase (CerS)-mediated synthesis, we assayed the expression patterns of ceramide-related genes using real-time PCR. CerS2 expression levels showed a biphasic pattern of expression in WT mice but no rhythmicity in DKO mice. While the neutral SMase (nSMase) and acidic SMase (aSMase) mRNA in WT mice were expressed in a circadian manner, the correlation between the expression levels of these SMases with times of day was weak in DKO mice. Collectively, our findings suggest that both SMases and CerS2 mRNA expression are regulated by the presence of mPer1/mPer2 circadian clock genes in vivo, and imply that ceramide may play a vital role in circadian rhythms and physiology.

Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase is differentially regulated in period gene-mutant mice.

The circadian clock in the brain coordinates the phase of peripheral oscillators that regulate tissue-specific physiological outputs. Here we report that circadian variations in the expression and activity of Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1; EC 1.15.1.1) are present in liver homogenates from mice. The SOD1 mRNA expression from wild-type (WT) mice peaked at Zeitgeber Time 9 (ZT9; 9h after lights-on time). While there was no rhythmicity in that from period2 (per2) gene knockout (P2K) mice, the level of SOD1 from per1/per2 double knockout (DKO) mice was significantly elevated at ZT5. The enzyme activity of SOD1 was also rhythmic in the mouse liver. Moreover, the total amount of the SOD1 exhibited a rhythmic oscillation with a peak at ZT9 in the liver from WT mice. We also found that tert-butylhydroperoxide (t-BHP)-induced oxidative damage in both WT and P2K mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEF) cells resulted in the up-regulation of SOD1 levels. Our data suggest that the expression of an important antioxidant enzyme, SOD1, is under circadian clock control and that mice are more susceptible to oxidative stress depending on the time of day.

Radiation Potentiates Monocyte Infiltration into Tumors by Ninjurin1 Expression in Endothelial Cells.

Radiation is a widely used treatment for cancer patients, with over half the cancer patients receiving radiation therapy during their course of treatment. Considerable evidence from both preclinical and clinical studies show that tumor recurrence gets restored following radiotherapy, due to the influx of circulating cells consisting primarily of monocytes. The attachment of monocyte to endothelial cell is the first step of the extravasation process. However, the exact molecules that direct the transmigration of monocyte from the blood vessels to the tumors remain largely unknown. The nerve injury-induced protein 1 (Ninjurin1 or Ninj1) gene, which encodes a homophilic adhesion molecule and cell surface protein, was found to be upregulated in inflammatory lesions, particularly in macrophages/monocytes, neutrophils, and endothelial cells. More recently Ninj1 was reported to be regulated following p53 activation. Considering p53 has been known to be activated by radiation, we wondered whether Ninj1 could be increased in the endothelial cells by radiation and it might contribute to the recruiting of monocytes in the tumor. Here we demonstrate that radiation-mediated up-regulation of Ninj1 in endothelial cell lines such as human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), EA.hy926, and immortalized HUVECs. Consistent with this, we found over-expressed Ninj1 in irradiated xenograft tumors, and increased monocyte infiltration into tumors. Radiation-induced Ninj1 was transcriptionally regulated by p53, as confirmed by transfection of p53 siRNA. In addition, Ninj1 over-expression in endothelial cells accelerated monocyte adhesion. Irradiation-induced endothelial cells and monocyte interaction was inhibited by knock-down of Ninj1. Furthermore, over-expressed Ninj1 stimulated MMP-2 and MMP-9 expression in monocyte cell lines, whereas the MMP-2 and MMP-9 expression were attenuated by Ninj1 knock-down in monocytes. Taken together, we provide evidence that Ninj1 is a key molecule that generates an interaction between endothelial cells and monocytes. This result suggests that radiation-mediated Ninj1 expression in endothelial cells could be involved in the post-radiotherapy recurrence mechanism.

Inhibition of STAT3 signaling induces apoptosis and suppresses growth of lung cancer: good and bad.

Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) modulates a variety of genes involved in the regulation of critical functions, including cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, angiogenesis, metastasis, and immunity. For many cancers, elevated levels of STAT3 signaling have been associated with a poor prognosis and the development of chemotherapy resistance. In this study, we investigated the inhibitory effects of a novel small-molecule inhibitor of STAT3, STX-0119, on the cell viability and survival of human lung cancer cells. STX-0119 inhibited activated STAT3 and the expression of STAT3-regulated oncoproteins such as c-Myc, cyclin D1, and survivin in lung cancer cells. STX-0119 also decreased the amount of STAT3 in the nuclear fraction as well as induced apoptosis of these lung cancer cell lines as evidenced by increases in apoptotic cells (Annexin V positive) and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) cleavage. The efficacy of STX-0119 in a mouse xenograft model was confirmed. However, a hematological side effect, which had not been previously reported, was observed. The level of white blood cells was significantly lowered when treated at the dose at which STX-0119 alone showed a significant tumor-suppressive effect. In conclusion, we suggest that STX-0119 may be a potent therapeutic agent against lung cancer. Consideration of the side effect suggests, it is necessary to study whether low-dose STX-0119 is effective for lung treatment with a combination of classic lung cancer therapeutics.

PLGA nanoparticles co-delivering MDR1 and BCL2 siRNA for overcoming resistance of paclitaxel and cisplatin in recurrent or advanced ovarian cancer.

The inherent or acquired resistance to paclitaxel and cisplatin, which are commonly used chemotherapeutic agents for ovarian cancer treatment, remains an important issue in chemotherapy of multidrug resistant ovarian cancer. Currently, it is still challenging to deal with the recurrent or advanced stage ovarian cancer. When drug efflux and anti-apoptotic pathways are highly interdependent and also involved in developing the resistance of multidrug resistant ovarian cancer, simultaneous inhibition of both pathways represents the potential targets to enhance the efficacy of chemotherapy. Here, we introduce PLGA nanoparticles system as a "dual RNAi delivery system" to contain both MDR1 and BCL2 siRNA, which is designed for simultaneous inhibition of drug efflux and cell death defense pathways. In the present studies, siRNA-loaded PLGA nanoparticles efficiently elicit the simultaneous suppression of both genes, which consequently shows more enhanced drug-sensitivity than sole suppression of drug efflux or anti-apoptosis in the resistant ovarian cancer cells, owing to the interdependence of both pathways. Our siRNA-loaded PLGA nanoparticles for co-delivering MDR1 and BCL2 siRNA provide an efficient combination therapy strategy to overcome the chemoresistance of paclitaxel and cisplatin on the paclitaxel-resistant SKOV3-TR and cisplatin-resistant A2780-CP20 ovarian cancer respectively.

Ninjurin1 Plays a Crucial Role in Pulmonary Fibrosis by Promoting Interaction between Macrophages and Alveolar Epithelial Cells.

The transmembrane nerve injury-induced protein 1 (Ninjurin1 or Ninj1) is involved in progressing inflammatory diseases. In this study, we aimed to investigate a novel function of Ninj1 in pulmonary fibrosis. We found that the expression of Ninj1 in a patient cohort was upregulated in the lung specimens of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis patients as well as mice with bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis. In addition, the BLM-injected Ninj1 KO mice exhibited a mild fibrotic phenotype, as compared to WT mice. Therefore, we hypothesized that Ninj1 would play an important role in the development of pulmonary fibrosis. We discovered that Ninj1 expression increased in BLM-treated macrophages and alveolar epithelial cells (AECs). Interestingly, macrophages bound to BLM-treated AECs were activated. However, when Ninj1 expression was suppressed in either of AECs or macrophages, contact-dependent activation of macrophages with AECs was diminished. In addition, introduction of recombinant mouse Ninj11-50 to macrophages triggered an inflammatory response, but did not stimulate Ninj1-deficient macrophages. In conclusion, we propose that Ninj1 may contribute to activation of macrophages by enhancing interaction with AECs having elevated Ninj1 expression due to injury-inducing stimuli. Consequently, Ninj1 may be involved in the development of pulmonary fibrosis by enhancing inflammatory response of macrophages.

Lactate calcium salt affects the viability of colorectal cancer cells via betaine homeostasis.

AIMS: Betaine plays an important role in cellular homeostasis. However, the physiological roles of betaine-γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) transporter (BGT-1) are still being disputed in cancer. In this study, we tried to find the possibility of the antitumor effect on colorectal cancer (CRC) cell via lactate calcium salt (CaLa)-induced BGT-1 downregulation. MAIN METHODS: The CRC cell viability and clonogenic assay was performed using different doses of BGT-1 inhibitor. The expression level of BGT-1 was measured following the treatment of 2.5mM CaLa. Betaine was treated to confirm the resistance of the antitumor activity by CaLa. Tumor growth was also measured using a xenograft animal model. KEY FINDINGS: Long-term exposure of 2.5mM CaLa clearly decreased the expression of BGT-1 in the CRC cells. As a result of the downregulation of BGT-1 expression, the clonogenic ability of CRC cells was also decreased in the 2.5mM CaLa-treated group. Reversely, the number of colonies and cell viability was increased by combination treatment with betaine and 2.5mM CaLa, as compared with a single treatment of 2.5mM CaLa. Tumor growth was significantly inhibited in the xenograft model depending on BGT-1 downregulation by 2.5mM CaLa treatment. SIGNIFICANCE: These results support the idea that long-lasting calcium supplementation via CaLa contributes to disruption of betaine homeostasis in the CRC cells and is hypothesized to reduce the risk of CRC. In addition, it indicates the possibility of CaLa being a potential incorporating agent with existing therapeutics against CRC.

Effective killing of cancer cells and regression of tumor growth by K27 targeting sulfiredoxin.

Cancer cells have been suggested to be more susceptible to oxidative damages and highly dependent on antioxidant capacity in comparison with normal cells, and thus targeting antioxidant enzymes has been a strategy for effective cancer treatment. Sulfiredoxin (Srx) is an enzyme that catalyzes the reduction of sulfinylated peroxiredoxins and thereby reactivates them. In this study we developed a Srx inhibitor, K27 (N-[7-chloro-2-(4-fluorophenyl)-4-quinazolinyl]-N-(2-phenylethyl)-ß-alanine), and showed that it induces the accumulation of sulfinylated peroxiredoxins and oxidative stress, which leads to mitochondrial damage and apoptotic death of cancer cells. The effects of K27 were significantly reversed by ectopic expression of Srx or antioxidant N-acetyl cysteine. In addition, K27 led to preferential death of tumorigenic cells over non-tumorigenic cells, and suppressed the growth of xenograft tumor without acute toxicity. Our results suggest that targeting Srx might be an effective therapeutic strategy for cancer treatment through redox-mediated cell death.

Ninjurin1 inhibits colitis-mediated colon cancer development and growth by suppression of macrophage infiltration through repression of FAK signaling.

Macrophage infiltration promotes tumorigenesis. However, the macrophage infiltration regulatory molecules have not been fully determined. Nerve injury-induced protein 1 (ninjurin1) is a homophilic cell surface adhesion molecule that plays an important role in cell migration and attachment. Although ninjurin1 is believed to play a role in several malignancies, it is unclear whether ninjurin1 expression contributes to cancer progression. We used transgenic mice (tg mice) that overexpressed ninjurin1 on macrophages. We subjected ninjurin1 tg mice to a well-known mouse model of colitis-associated colon cancer in which animals are treated with azoxymethane (AOM) and dextran sulfate sodium (DSS). After AOM and DSS treatment, ninjurin1 tg mice developed fewer and smaller tumors compared with wild-type (wt) mice. Ninjurin1 tg mice also showed reduced infiltration of macrophages and suppressed angiogenesis in the tumor mass. We therefore explored whether ninjurin1 decreases macrophage migration into the tumor sites. After adoptive transfer to tumor-bearing recipients, wild type and ninjurin1 tg mice's peritoneal macrophages were freshly isolated and labeled with carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE). As expected, compared with that of wt type macrophages, tumor infiltration of ninjurin1-overexpressing macrophages was significantly decreased. We also found that ninjurin1 overexpression suppressed FAK activity. In addition, knockdown of ninjurin1 enhanced FAK activity and migration activity of RAW264.7 cells. Ninjurin1 overexpression on macrophage inhibits tumor growth by suppression of macrophage infiltration through repression of FAK signaling. Ninjurin1 is a key regulator molecule for macrophage migration and Tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) mediated tumorigenesis in vivo.

Fermented Pueraria Lobata extract ameliorates dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis by reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines and recovering intestinal barrier function.

Inflammatory bowel disease is a chronic inflammatory disorder occurring in the gastrointestinal track. However, the efficacy of current therapeutic strategies has been limited and accompanied by side effects. In order to eliminate the limitations, herbal medicines have recently been developed for treatment of IBD. Peuraria Lobata (Peuraria L.) is one of the traditional herbal medicines that have anti-inflammatory effects. Bioavailability of Peuraria L., which is rich in isoflavones, is lower than that of their fermented forms. In this study, we generated fermented Peuraria L. extracts (fPue) and investigated the role of fPue in inflammation and intestinal barrier function in vitro and in vivo. As the mice or intestinal epithelial cells were treated with DSS/fPue, mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines was reduced and the architecture and expression of tight junction proteins were recovered, compared to the DSS-treated group. In summary, fPue treatment resulted in amelioration of DSS-induced inflammation in the colon, and the disrupted intestinal barrier was recovered as the expression and architecture of tight junction proteins were retrieved. These results suggest that use of fPue could be a new therapeutic strategy for treatment of IBD.

Investigation of lactate calcium salt-induced ß-catenin destabilization in colorectal cancer cells.

AIMS: Calcium supplements appear to reduce the risk of developing colorectal cancer (CRC), and it is necessary to clarify the mechanisms by which they exert their effects. In the present study, we investigate the supplementation effect of calcium via lactate calcium salt (CaLa) on CRC cells, focusing on ß-catenin destabilization. MAIN METHODS: The clonogenic assay was performed using different doses of CaLa. The expression level of c-Myc and Cyclin D1 was measured in addition to the confirmation of ß-catenin expression in the CRC cells. Glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3ß expression was also confirmed in order to investigate the mechanism of ß-catenin degradation. Tumorigenic ability was confirmed using a xenograft animal model. KEY FINDINGS: The number of colonies was significantly decreased after 2.5mM CaLa treatment. CaLa-treated CRC cells showed a decrease in the ß-catenin expression. The quantitative level of the ß-catenin protein was significantly decreased in the CRC cell lysates, hence the expression level of c-Myc and cyclin D1 was significantly decreased following 2.5mM CaLa treatment. We also confirmed that an increased expression of GSK-3ß by CaLa is a key pathway in ß-catenin degradation. In the xenograft study, tumorigenicity was significantly inhibited to a maximum of 45% in the CaLa-treated group as compared with the control. SIGNIFICANCE: These results support the idea that calcium supplementation via CaLa contributes to ß-catenin degradation and is hypothesized to reduce the risk of CRC. In addition, it indicates the possibility of CaLa being a potential incorporating agent with existing therapeutics against CRC.

Evaluation of preventive and therapeutic activity of novel non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, CG100649, in colon cancer: Increased expression of TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand receptors enhance the apoptotic response to combination treatment with TRAIL.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have been suggested as the potential new class of preventive or therapeutic antitumor agents. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the antitumor activity of the novel NSAID, CG100649. CG100649 is a novel NSAID dual inhibitor for COX-2 and carbonic anhydrase (CA)-I/-II. In the present study, we investigated the alternative mechanism by which CG100649 mediated suppression of the colon cancer growth and development. The anchorage­dependent and -independent clonogenic assay showed that CG100649 inhibited the clonogenicity of human colon cancer cells. The flow cytometric analysis showed that CG100649 induced the G2/M cell cycle arrest in colon cancer cells. Animal studies showed that CG100649 inhibited the tumor growth in colon cancer xenograft in nude mice. Furthermore, quantitative PCR and FACS analysis demonstrated that CG100649 upregulated the expression of TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) receptors (DR4 and DR5) but decreased the expression of decoy receptors (DcR1 and DcR2) in colon cancer cells. The results showed that CG100649 treatment sensitized TRAIL­mediated growth suppression and apoptotic cell death. The combination treatment resulted in significant repression of the intestinal polyp formation in APCmin/+ mice. Our data clearly demonstrated that CG100649 contains preventive and therapeutic activity for colon cancer. The present study may be useful for identification of the potential benefit of the NSAID CG100649, for the achievement of a better treatment response in colon cancer.

Modulation of intracellular calcium levels by calcium lactate affects colon cancer cell motility through calcium-dependent calpain.

Cancer cell motility is a key phenomenon regulating invasion and metastasis. Focal adhesion kinase (FAK) plays a major role in cellular adhesion and metastasis of various cancers. The relationship between dietary supplementation of calcium and colon cancer has been extensively investigated. However, the effect of calcium (Ca2+) supplementation on calpain-FAK-motility is not clearly understood. We sought to identify the mechanism of FAK cleavage through Ca2+ bound lactate (CaLa), its downstream signaling and role in the motility of human colon cancer cells. We found that treating HCT116 and HT-29 cells with CaLa immediately increased the intracellular Ca2+ (iCa2+) levels for a prolonged period of time. Ca2+ influx induced cleavage of FAK into an N-terminal FAK (FERM domain) in a dose-dependent manner. Phosphorylated FAK (p-FAK) was also cleaved in to its p-N-terminal FAK. CaLa increased colon cancer cells motility. Calpeptin, a calpain inhibitor, reversed the effects of CaLa on FAK and pFAK cleavage in both cancer cell lines. The cleaved FAK translocates into the nucleus and modulates p53 stability through MDM2-associated ubiquitination. CaLa-induced Ca2+ influx increased the motility of colon cancer cells was mediated by calpain activity through FAK and pFAK protein destabilization. In conclusion, these results suggest that careful consideration may be given in deciding dietary Ca2+ supplementation to patient undergoing treatment for metastatic cancer.

Oral administration of fermented wild ginseng ameliorates DSS-induced acute colitis by inhibiting NF-κB signaling and protects intestinal epithelial barrier.

Ginseng has been widely used for therapeutic and preventive purposes for thousands of years. However, orally administered ginseng has very low bioavailability and absorption in the intestine. Therefore, fermented ginseng was developed to enhance the beneficial effects of ginseng in the intestine. In this study, we investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying the anti-inflammatory activity of fermented wild ginseng (FWG). We found that FWG significantly alleviated the severity of colitis in a dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis mouse model, and decreased expression level of pro-inflammatory cytokines in colonic tissue. Moreover, we observed that FWG suppressed the infiltration of macrophages in DSS-induced colitis. FWG also attenuated the transcriptional activity of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) by reducing the translocation of NF-κB into the nucleus. Our data indicate that FWG contains anti-inflammatory activity via NF-κB inactivation and could be useful for treating colitis.