Multi-omics provide mechanistic insight into the Pb-induced changes in tadpole fitness-related traits and environmental water quality.

Water pollution from lead/Pb2+ poses a significant threat to aquatic ecosystems, and its repercussions on aquatic animals have received considerable attention. Although Pb2+ has been found to affect numerous aspects of animals, including individual fitness, metabolic status, and symbiotic microbiota, few studies have focused on the associations between Pb2+-induced variations in fitness, metabolome, symbiotic microbiome, and environmental parameters in the same system, limiting a comprehensive understanding of ecotoxicological mechanisms from a holistic perspective. Moreover, most ecotoxicological studies neglected the potential contributions of anions to the consequences generated by inorganic lead compounds. We investigated the effects of Pb(NO3)2 at environmentally relevant concentrations on the Rana omeimontis tadpoles and the water quality around them, using blank and NaNO3-treated groups as control. Results showed that Pb(NO3)2 not only induced a rise in water nitrite level, but exposure to this chemical also impaired tadpole fitness-related traits (e.g., growth and development). The impacts on tadpoles were most likely a combination of Pb2+ and NO3-. Tissue metabolomics revealed that Pb(NO3)2 exposure influenced animal substrate (i.e., carbohydrate, lipid, and amino acid) and prostaglandin metabolism. Pb(NO3)2 produced profound shifts in gut microbiota, with increased Proteobacteria impairing Firmicutes, resulting in higher aerobic and possibly pathogenic bacteria. NaNO3 also influenced tadpole metabolome and gut microbiome, in a manner different to that of Pb(NO3)2. The presence of NO3- seemed to counteract some changes caused by Pb2+, particularly on the microbiota. Piecewise structural equation model and correlation analyses demonstrated connections between tissue metabolome and gut microbiome, and the variations in tadpole phenotypic traits and water quality were linked to changes in tissue metabolome and gut microbiome. These findings emphasized the important roles of gut microbiome in mediating the effects of toxin on aquatic ecosystem. Moreover, it is suggested to consider the influences of anions in the risk assessment of heavy metal pollutions.

Comparative osteology of the hynobiid complex Liua-Protohynobius-Pseudohynobius (Amphibia, Urodela): â . Cranial anatomy of Pseudohynobius.

Hynobiidae are a clade of salamanders that diverged early within the crown radiation and that retain a considerable number of features plesiomorphic for the group. Their evolutionary history is informed by a fossil record that extends to the Middle Jurassic Bathonian time. Our understanding of the evolution within the total group of Hynobiidae has benefited considerably from recent discoveries of stem hynobiids but is constrained by inadequate anatomical knowledge of some extant forms. Pseudohynobius is a derived hynobiid clade consisting of five to seven extant species living endemic to southwestern China. Although this clade has been recognized for over 37 years, osteological details of these extant hynobiids remain elusive, which undoubtedly has contributed to taxonomic controversies over the hynobiid complex Liua-Protohynobius-Pseudohynobius. Here we provide a bone-by-bone study of the cranium in the five extant species of Pseudohynobius (Ps. flavomaculatus, Ps. guizhouensis, Ps. jinfo, Ps. kuankuoshuiensis and Ps. shuichengensis) based on x-ray computer tomography data for 18 specimens. Our results indicate that the cranium in each of these species has a combination of differences in morphology, proportions and articulation patterns in both dermal and endochondral bones. Our study establishes a range of intraspecific differences that will serve as organizing hypotheses for future studies as more extensive collections of these species become available. Morphological features in the cranium for terrestrial ecological adaptation in Hynobiidae are summarized. Based on the results, we also discuss the evolution and development of several potential synapomorphies of Hynobiidae, including features of the orbitosphenoid and articular.

[Involvement of intrathecal activation of MrgC receptor in pathological pain and morphine tolerance].

Rodent MrgC receptor (Mas-related G-protein-coupled receptor subtype C) shares 65% sequence homology and similarities in terms of expression pattern and binding profile with human Mas-related gene X receptor 1 (hMrgX1). Therefore, researchers generally explore the role of hMrgX1 by studying the function of MrgC receptor. Murine MrgC receptor is uniquely expressed in small-diameter neurons of dorsal root ganglia (DRG) and trigeminal ganglia (TG), which is closely related to the transmission process of pain. This review summarizes the analgesic effects of intrathecal activation of MrgC receptors in pathological pain and morphine tolerance.

[Effects of pure total flavonoids from Citrus changshan-huyou on blood lipid metabolism in hyperlipidemic rats].

To observe and investigate the effects and mechanisms of the pure total flavonoids from Citrus changshan-huyou(PTFC) on blood lipid metabolism in hyperlipidemic rats. SD rats were fed with high fat diet for 4 weeks to induce hyperlipidemic rats model, meanwhile three dosages (50, 100, 200 mg•kg ⁻¹â€¢d ⁻¹) of PTFC were administrated intragastrically for 4 weeks respectively.After 2 weeks of modeling, their tail blood was taken and serum TC, TG, and HDL-C levels were detected by biochemical method and their body weight was measured. After 4 weeks of modeling, their body weight was measured and liver weight was measured, then the levels of TC, TG, HDL-C, LDL-C, ALT, AST, MDA and SOD in serum were detected to calculate lipid comprehensive index(LDL-C/HDL-C and LDL-C/TC ratios) and atherogenic index(AI); in addition, MDA and SOD levels were detected by biochemical method. The hitopathological changes of the liver tissues were observed by HE staining; the protein expression levels of PPAR-α, Lpl, and Lipc were detected by ELISA; and the mRNA expression levels of PPAR-α in the liver tissue were detected by Real-time PCR. The results showed that gavage administration of the PTFC significantly decreased the body weight, liver weight, liver index, serum ALT and AST activities, the levels of serum TC, TG, LDL-C, LDL-C/HDL-C, AI and increased serum HDL and LDL/TC level. Moreover, the PTFC significantly enhanced SOD activity and decreased the concentration of MDA in serum and liver tissue. Further mechanism investigation indicated that PTFC inhibited serum lipid accumulation by increasing the expressions PPAR-α, Lpl, Lipc protein and PPAR-α mRNA of the liver tissues. PTFC could actively regulate blood lipid metabolism by ameliorating hepatic function, improving the body's antioxidant capacity, lowering levels of oxidative stress, as well as positively regulating the expression levels of PPAR-α, Lpl, Lipc protein and PPAR-α mRNA of the liver tissues in rats.

[Activation of spinal MrgC receptors inhibits hyperalgesia in rats].

This study was aimed to investigate the mechanisms of the modulation effect of activation of spinal Mas-related gene C (MrgC) receptors on hyperalgesia induced by intraplantar (i.pl.) injection of (Tyr6)-γ2-MSH-6-12 (MSH) or complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA). Paw withdrawal latency test and immunohistochemistry were used to observe the effect of intrathecal (i.t.) administration of MSH or BAM8-22, two selective agonists of MrgC receptor, in hyperalgesia in rats. The results showed that i.t. administration of MSH inhibited acute hyperalgesic response induced by i.pl. application of MSH, while did not change thermal nociceptive threshold in naïve rats. The i.t. administration of MSH also attenuated CFA-induced inflammatory hyperalgesia. However, i.t. administration of the µ-opioid receptor (MOR) antagonist CTAP blocked the induction of delayed anti-hyperalgesia by MSH. The i.t. injection of BAM8-22 at a dose of 30 nmol evidently reduced the number of CFA-evoked nitric oxide synthase (NOS)-positive neurons and the expression of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP)-immunoreactivity positive nerve fibers at L3-L5 segments of the spinal cord. These results suggest that the activation of MrgC receptor in CFA-induced inflammation reduces inflammatory hyperalgesia through inactivation of NOS neurons and down-regulation of CGRP expressions, and generates delayed but long-lasting anti-nociception through the endogenous activation of MOR via indirect mechanisms. Agonists for MrgC receptors may, therefore, represent a new class of antihyperalgesics for treating inflammatory pain because of the highly specific expression of their targets.

[Spectroscopic Diagnosis of Two-Dimensional Distribution of OH Radicals in Wire-Plate Pulsed Corona Discharge Reactor].

Pulsed corona discharge in atmosphere has been widely regarded as an efficient flue gas treatment technology for the generation of active radical species, such as the OH radicals. The spatial distribution of OH radicals generated by pulsed corona discharge plays an important role in decomposing pollutants. The two-dimensional (2-D) distribution of OH radicals of positive wire--plate pulsed corona discharge was detected using laser-induced fluorescence (LIF). The influence of relative humidity (RH) and oxygen concentration on the 2-D distribution of OH radicals were investigated. The results indicated that the 2-D distribution of OH radicals was characterized by a fan-shaped distribution from the wire electrode to plate electrode, and both the maximum values of vertical length and horizontal width of the fan area was less than 1 cm. The 2-D distribution area of OH radicals increased significantly with increasing the RH and the optimum condition was 65% RH. The optimal level of the oxygen concentration for the 2-D distribution area of OH radicals was 2%. The process of OH radical generation and 2-D distribution area of OH radicals were significantly interfered when the oxygen concentration was larger than 15%. The total quenching rate coefficients for different RH values and oxygen concentration in this study were used to calculate the fluorescence yield of OH radical. The fluorescence yield, which is the ratio between the emission rate (Einstein coefficient) and the sum of the emission rate and quenching rate, was used to normalize the 2-D distribution area of OH radicals. The fluorescence yield of OH radical decreased with increasing the RH and oxygen concentration linearly and rapidly. It was also found that compared with the RH, the influence of the oxygen concentration had more notable effect on the fluorescence yield of OH radical and 2-D distribution area of OH radicals.

Regulation of pure total flavonoids from Citrus on TH17/Treg balance in mice with NASH.

This study aimed to investigate the involved immunologic mechanism of pure total flavonoids from Citrus (PTFC) on the development of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). C57BL/6 mice were fed with high .fat diet for 16 weeks to induce the NASH model, and from the 7th week three dosages (25, 50 and 100 mg x kg(-1) x d(-1)) of PTFC were administrated intragastric for 10 weeks respectively. Serum TG, CHOL, ALT, AST were determined by biochemical assay, histopathological changes of the liver tissue were observed by HE staining, expression of RORyt and Foxp3 mRNA of the liver tissue was detected by Real-time PCR, and serum IL-17, IL-6, IL-10 and IL-4 were determined by.Cytometric Beads Array. As a result, we find that after the administration of PTFC, the in- flammation of the liver tissue of NASH mice was attenuated, liver function was improved, and the expression of RORgammat mRNA was higher in the liver tissue while which was lower of Foxp3 mRNA, the level of proinflammatory cytokines IL-17 and IL-6 decreased and the level of suppressive cytokines IL-10 and IL-4 increased. These data show that PTFC protects the development of NASH through regulating the Th17/Treg balance and attenuating inflammation.

[Effect of pure total flavonoids from citrus on hepatic SIRT1/PGC-1alpha pathway in mice with NASH].

OBJECTIVE: To observe the effect of pure total flavonoids from Citrus (PTFC) on the hepatic fatty degeneration, inflammation, oxidative stress and SIRT1/PGC-1alpha expressions in mice with non-alcohol steatohepatitis (NASH), and discuss the action mechanism of PTFC on NASH. METHOD: Mice were given high-fat diet for 16 weeks to induce the NASH model. Since the seventh week after the model establishment, the mice were intervened with 100, 50 and 25 mg x kg(-1) x d(-1) PTFC for 10 weeks. The pathologic changes in hepatic tissues were observed with HE staining. The contents of TG, CHOL in hepatic tissue, as well as the levels of AST, ALT in serum were detected by using the biochemical process. The expression of SIRT1, PGC-1alpha and MnSOD mRNA in hepatic tissues were detected with Real-time PCR assay. SIRT1, PGC-1alpha protein and 8-OHdG expressions were determined with the immunohistochemical method. The SOD level in hepatic tissues was tested by the xanthine oxidase method. The MDA content in hepatic tissues was examined by the thiobarbituric acid method. RESULT: The contents of TG, CHOL, NAFLD activity scores and ALT level in serum in hepatic tissues of mice in the model induced by fat-rich diet were obviously higher than that of the normal group (P < 0.010. The SIRT1, PGC-1alpha, MnSOD mRNA and protein expression in hepatic tissues were significantly lower than that of the normal group (P < 0.01). The expression of 8-OHdG and the content of MDA in hepatic tissues were obviously higher than that of the normal group (P < 0.01). After the intervention with different doses of PTFC, the NAFLD activity scores, the content of TG and the level of AST in serum were notably lower than that of the normal group (P < 0.01, P < 0.05); whereas the SIRT1, PGC-1alpha, MnSOD mRNA and protein expression were obviously higher than that of the normal group (P < 0.01, P < 0.05), with the significant decrease in the expression of 8-OHdG and the content of MDA (P < 0.01). CONCLUSION: Oxidative stress/lipid peroxidation enhancement in in NASH mice induced by high-fat diet may be related to the changes in SIRT1/PGC-1alpha signal transduction pathway. PTFC could enhance the anti-oxidant capacity in liver, relieve the damage of reactive oxygen during the fatty acid metabolic process, and prevent NASH from the occurrence and development by regulating the SIRT1/PGC-1alpha signal pathway.

A New Species of Cyrtodactylus tibetanus Group (Reptilia: Squamata: Gekkonidae) from Xizang Autonomous Region, China.

A new Cyrtodactylus species, C. laevissp. nov., from the dry-hot valleys near the Yarlung Zangbo River in Re Village, Jindong Countryside, Lang County, Linzhi City, Xizang Autonomous Region, China, is described herein based upon the integrative taxonomic results combining molecular phylogenetic systematics and morphological characteristic comparisons. Our molecular phylogeny was inferred by combining three mitochondrial gene fragments (16S/CO1/ND2), and it indicated a distinct differentiation between the new species and C. tibetanus species complex, with obvious genetic distances (16S 9.9-11.8%/CO1 16.5-18.2%/ND2 16.6-18.5%) detected, supporting its validity. Morphologically, the new species can be easily distinguished from its congers by the following characters: (1) medium size (SVL 48.58-50.92 mm), (2) tubercles on dorsum sparse, (3) tail segments absent and tubercles on tails absent, (4) supralabials 10-12 and infralabials 8-10, (5) interorbital scales between anterior corners of the eyes 28-32, (6) scale rows at midbody 96-98, (7) ventral scales between mental and cloacal slit 145-153, (8) ventral scale rows 41-45, and (9) 4 to 5 white-yellow transverse bands with brown dots and black merges between the nape and sacrum. The description of C. laevissp. nov. increased the total species number of C. tibetanus group to three, and the total Cyrtodactylus species number in Xizang to six and in China to eleven. The new species is currently only known from the type locality with its extremely small populations and needs future surveys to reveal its distribution range, population status, natural history, and mechanisms so that the new species can coexist with Altiphylax medogense.

Naringin and Naringenin: Potential Multi-Target Agents for Alzheimer's Disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the most common forms of neurodegenerative dementia. The etiology of AD is multifactorial, and its complex pathophysiology involves tau and amyloid-ß deposition, increased oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, metabolic disorders, and massive neuronal loss. Due to its complex pathology, no effective cure for AD has been found to date. Therefore, there is an unmet clinical need for the development of new drugs against AD. Natural products are known to be good sources of compounds with pharmacological activity and have potential for the development of new therapeutic agents. Naringin, a naturally occurring flavanone glycoside, is predominantly found in citrus fruits and Chinese medicinal herbs. Mounting evidence shows that naringin and its aglycone, naringenin, have direct neuroprotective effects on AD, such as anti-amyloidogenic, antioxidant, anti-acetylcholinesterase, and anti-neuroinflammatory effects, as well as metal chelation. Furthermore, they are known to improve disordered glucose/lipid metabolism, which is a high risk factor for AD. In this review, we summarize the latest data on the impact of naringin and naringenin on the molecular mechanisms involved in AD pathophysiology. Additionally, we provide an overview of the current clinical applications of naringin and naringenin. The novel delivery systems for naringin and naringenin, which can address their widespread pharmacokinetic limitations, are also discussed. The literature indicates that naringin and naringenin could be multilevel, multitargeted, and multifaceted for preventing and treating AD.

A new species of Achalinus Peters, 1869 (Squamata, Xenodermidae) from Hunan Province, China.

A new species, Achalinushunanensissp. nov., is described from middle and western Hunan Province based on the results of molecular systematics and morphological characters. It diverges from known congeners by a significant genetic divergence (p-distance 3.2%-16.9% based on CO1 mitochondrial gene), and it can be distinguished from all known congeners by the following morphological characters: (1) all dorsal scales strongly keeled, 23 rows throughout the body, the outmost one strongly keeled and enlarged; (2) tail relatively short, TaL/TL 0.221 ~ 0.225; (3) maxillary teeth 23; (4) the suture between internasals 2 × as long as that between prefrontals; (5) loreal one, subrectangular, LorH/LorL 0.62 ~ 0.70; (6) supralabials 6, the 4th and 5th touch the eye; (7) the two anterior temporals in contact with eye; (8) ventrals 163-165, subcaudals 69-72, not paired. This raises the number of known species of Achalinus to 24.

Discovery of a new cryptic Achalinus Peters, 1869 (Serpentes, Xenodermidae) species from Hunan Province, China.

A new species, Achalinusshenisp. nov., from central Hunan Province is described, based on the results of molecular systematics and morphological characters according to five specimens. Our molecular phylogeny inferred from the mitochondrial CO1 gene fragment revealed that this new species is most closely related to A.yunkaiensis, but a considerable amount of genetic divergence exists between them (p-distance ranging from 5.8% to 6.4%) and much distinct genetic divergence exists compared with other known Achalinus species (p-distance ranging from 10.4% to 15.8%), supporting its validity. Morphologically, it can be distinguished from its congeners by: (1) dorsal scales strongly keeled, 23 rows throughout the body, the outmost row smooth and significantly enlarged; (2) tail relatively short, TaL/TL 0.183 ~ 0.224; (3) the suture between internasals subequal to the suture between prefrontals; (4) loreal one, subrectangular, LorH/LorL 0.53 ~ 0.57; (5) ventrals 161-170, anal entire, subcaudals 55-61, not paired; (6) the length of supraocular equal to or longer than the length of upper anterior temporal; and (7) vertebral line inconspicuous and subcaudal streak absent. Currently, 27 species of Achalinus are known in the world, amongst which 20 species are distributed in China. Moreover, a key to species of the genus Achalinus is provided in this study.

A wide hybrid zone mediated by precipitation contributed to confused geographical structure of Scutiger boulengeri.

Confused geographical structure of a population and mitonuclear discordance are shaped by a combination of rapid changes in population demographics and shifts in ecology. In this study, we generated a time-calibrated phylogeny of Scutiger boulengeri, an endemic Xizang alpine toad occurring in mountain streams on the Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau (QTP). Based on three mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) genes, eight clades were assigned to three deeply divergent lineages. Analysis of nuclear DNA (nuDNA) genes revealed three distinct clusters without geographic structure, indicating significantly high rates of gene flow. Coalescent theory framework analysis (approximate Bayesian computation model DIYABC and Migrate-N) suggested that divergence of the main intraspecific clusters was the result of hybridization after secondary contact in the Holocene around 0.59 million years ago (Ma). The ratio of mtDNA F ST (fixation index) to nuDNA F ST was 2.3, thus failing to show male-biased dispersal. Geographic cline analysis showed that a wide hybrid zone was initially established in southwestern China, without significant reproductive isolation but with strong introgression in S. boulengeri, suggesting high hybrid fitness. Furthermore, mtDNA genes exhibited isolation by distance (IBD) while nuDNA genes exhibited significant isolation by environment (IBE). Results suggested that mitonuclear discordance may have initially been caused by geographic isolation, followed by precipitation-mediated hybridization, producing a wide hybrid zone and geographic structure confusion of nuDNA genes in S. boulengeri. This study indicated that complicated historical processes may have led to specific genetic patterns, with a specific climate factor facilitating gene flow in the system.

Cascading effects of Pb on the environmental and symbiotic microbiota and tadpoles' physiology based on field data and laboratory validation.

Heavy metal pollution poses a serious threat to ecosystems. Currently, there is a lack of field data that would enable us to gain a systematic understanding of the influences of heavy metals on aquatic ecosystems, especially the interactions between environments and animals. We studied the relationships between the variations in heavy metal concentrations (10 species including Pb in sediments and surface water), the community structure of environmental and symbiotic microbiota, and the gut traits of Bufo gargarizans tadpoles across 16 sampling sites on the Chengdu Plain through rigorous statistical analysis and laboratory validation. The results show that heavy metal concentrations, especially the Pb concentration of the sediment, are linked to the variations in sediment and tadpoles' gut microbiomes but not to water microbiota. For the sediment microbiota, Pb causes a trade-off between the proportions of Burkholderiales and Verrucomicrobiae and affects the methane, sulfide, and nitrate metabolisms. For tadpoles, a high sediment Pb content leads to a low abundance of gut aerobic bacteria and a large relative gut weight under both field and laboratory conditions. In addition, Pb promotes the growth of B. gargarizans tadpoles under laboratory conditions. These effects seem to be beneficial to tadpoles. However, a high Pb content leads to a low abundance of probiotic bacteria (e.g., Verrucomicrobiae, Eubacteriaceae, and Cetobacterium) and a high abundance of pathogenic bacteria in the gut and environment, suggesting potential health risks posed by Pb. Interestingly, there is a causal relationship between Pb-induced variations in sediment and symbiotic microbiotas, and the latter is further linked to the variation in relative gut weight of tadpoles. This suggests a cascading effect of Pb on the ecosystem. In conclusion, our results indicate that among the heavy metals, the Pb in sediment is a critical factor affecting the aquatic ecosystem through an environment-gut-physiology pathway mediated by microbiota.

A new Asian lazy toad of the genus Scutiger Theobald, 1868 (Anura, Megophryidae) from southern Tibet, China.

In this study, a new species named Scutigerluozhaensissp. nov. is described from Luozha, southern Tibet, China. Genetic analysis based on two mitochondrial genes 16S rRNA and COI and the nuclear gene RAG1 revealed that the new species belongs to an independent phylogenetic clade close to S.gongshanensis and S.nyingchiensis and shares no RAG1 haplotype with other species. Morphological comparisons based on examined specimens and literatures indicated that it can be diagnosed from congeners by the following combination of characters: (1) body moderate, male body length 47.0-67.2 mm (n = 13), female body length 49.8-66.2 mm (n = 8); (2) maxillary teeth and budding absent; (3) numerous tiny dense nuptial spines present on dorsal surface of fingers I, II and inner surface of finger III of males in breeding condition with similar size; (4) spine patches on belly of males in breeding condition absent; (5) spines on inner surface of forearm and upper arm of males in breeding condition absent; (6) small patches of black spines present near armpit of males in breeding condition absent; (7) adult males without vocal sac; (8) some large warts and tubercles on dorsum gathered into short skin ridges with several spines present on top; (9) space between upper eyelids wider than upper eyelids; (10) spots or irregular cross bands on limbs absent; (11) webbing between toes rudimentary; (12) coloration of dorsal body olive brown to bronze.

[Diagnosis of electron energy and comparative effects of OH, O or O3 on NO oxidation in pulsed corona discharge].

The spectrum of excited N2 molecules and ions was measured by optical emission spectroscopy in pulsed corona discharge with a wire-to-plate reactor. The ratio of emission intensities emitted by the excited molecules and ions of N2 was compared with numerical simulation to determine average electron energies and electric field distributions. Within 2 cm distance from wire electrode in horizontal and vertical directions, electric field and average electron energies appear to be in the ranges of 11.05 19.6 MV x m(-1) and 10.10-13.92 eV respectively; as the distance increases, average electron energies and electric field show a similar trend: first decrease and then increase. Chemically active species, such as OH, O and O3, can be generated through the energetic electron collisions with H2O and O2 directly or indirectly. For the NO oxidation, there is no coexistence of NO and O3, whereas there is a coexistence of NO and OH. NO is oxidized by O3 or O more efficiently than by OH radical.

Ossification patterns of the carpus and tarsus in salamanders and impacts of preaxial dominance on the fin-to-limb transition.

Early limb skeletogenesis in salamanders is characterized by preaxial elements, digits I and II forming earlier than their postaxial counterparts (digits III to V), a phenomenon known as preaxial dominance, whereas in amniotes and anurans, these developmental sequences are reversed. This pattern characterizes the late skeletogenesis of digits and zeugopodium of anamniote tetrapods but remains unknown in carpals/tarsals. To correct this gap in knowledge, we investigate the ossification patterns of the carpals/tarsals in six salamander families/clades based on micro-computed tomography scans. We found that preaxial dominance is seen in the distal carpals/tarsals of several salamander clades and diverse early tetrapods, such as temnospondyls and amniotes. This distribution suggests that preaxial dominance is a primitive developmental pattern in tetrapods. Our results demonstrate that the distal carpals/tarsals are developmentally and evolutionarily independent in the autopodium, and preaxial dominance facilitates stabilization of the number of distal carpals/tarsals during fin-to-limb transition and digit reduction in early tetrapods.

Citrus aurantium 'Changshan-huyou'-An ethnopharmacological and phytochemical review.

Citrus fruits are composed of oil cells layer, white membrane layer, pulp and seeds. The cultivar Citrus aurantium 'Changshan-huyou' (CACH) is a hybridization of Citrus grandis Osbeck and C. sinensis Osbeck. It is a rutaceae plant, and mainly grows in Changshan, Zhejiang, China. With the exploration of its high traditional values, it has been paid more and more attention by the scientific community in recent years. At present, one hundred and two chemical constituents have been identified from the pulp and peel of CACH, including volatile oils, terpenoids, phenols, limonins, sugars, etc., As the representative active component of CACH, phenols have been widely investigated. Studies have shown that CACH shows a variety of significant pharmacological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, hepatoprotective activity, respiratory system protection and intestinal regulation activity. This review mainly introduces the chemical constituents and pharmacological activities of CACH, and discusses its future research and development directions. It will provide theoretical basis for further research of its pharmacodynamic substances, functional mechanism and rational utilization.

Multidimensional amphibian diversity and community structure along a 2 600 m elevational gradient on the eastern margin of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau.

Mountain systems harbor an evolutionarily unique and exceptionally rich biodiversity, especially for amphibians. However, the associated elevational gradients and underlying mechanisms of amphibian diversity in most mountain systems remain poorly understood. Here, we explored amphibian phylogenetic and functional diversity along a 2 600 m elevational gradient on Mount Emei on the eastern margin of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau in southwestern China. We also assessed the relative importance of spatial (area) and environmental factors (temperature, precipitation, solar radiation, normalized difference vegetation index, and potential evapotranspiration) in shaping amphibian distribution and community structure. Results showed that the phylogenetic and functional diversities were unimodal with elevation, while the standardized effect size of phylogenetic and functional diversity increased linearly with elevation. Phylogenetic net relatedness, nearest taxon index, and functional net relatedness index all showed a positive to negative trend with elevation, indicating a shift from clustering to overdispersion and suggesting a potential change in key processes from environmental filtering to competitive exclusion. Overall, our results illustrate the importance of deterministic processes in structuring amphibian communities in subtropical mountains, with the dominant role potentially switching with elevation. This study provides insights into the underlying assembly mechanisms of mountain amphibians, integrating multidimensional diversity.

Exploring cryptic biodiversity in a world heritage site: a new pitviper (Squamata, Viperidae, Crotalinae) from Jiuzhaigou, Aba, Sichuan, China.

This study presents a comprehensive morphological comparison along with molecular phylogeny of the genus Gloydius based on five mitochondrial genes (12S, 16S, COI, cytb, and ND4). The specimens collected from Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve are shown to be a new species, Gloydiuslateralis sp. nov. Zhang, Shi, Jiang & Shi based on a combination of morphological and molecular accounts. G.lateralis sp. nov. differs from other congeneric species by a series of diagnostic morphological characteristics and forms a strongly supported monophyletic group. The new species is phylogenetically closely related to G.swild, another recently described species from Heishui, Aba, Sichuan.