Translation of mechanistic advances in preeclampsia to the clinic: Long and winding road.

As one of the leading causes of premature birth and maternal and infant mortality worldwide, preeclampsia remains a major unmet public health challenge. Preeclampsia and related hypertensive disorders of pregnancy are estimated to cause >75 000 maternal and 500 000 infant deaths globally each year. Because of rising rates of risk factors such as obesity, in vitro fertilization and advanced maternal age, the incidence of preeclampsia is going up with rates ranging from 5% to 10% of all pregnancies worldwide. A major discovery in the field was the realization that the clinical phenotypes related to preeclampsia, such as hypertension, proteinuria, and other adverse maternal/fetal events, are due to excess circulating soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 (sFlt-1, also referred to as sVEGFR-1). sFlt-1 is an endogenous anti-angiogenic protein that is made by the placenta and acts by neutralizing the pro-angiogenic proteins vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and placental growth factor (PlGF). During the last decade, this work has spawned a new era of molecular diagnostics for early detection of this condition. Antagonizing sFlt-1 either by reducing production or blocking its actions has shown salutary effects in animal models. Further, in early-stage human studies, the therapeutic removal of sFlt-1 from maternal circulation has shown promise in delaying disease progression and improving outcomes. Recently, the FDA approved the first molecular test for preterm preeclampsia (sFlt-1/PlGF ratio) for clinical use in the United States. Measuring serum sFlt-1/PlGF ratio in the acute hospital setting may aid short-term management, particularly regarding step-up or step-down of care, decision to transfer to settings better equipped to manage both the mother and the preterm neonate, appropriate timing of administration of steroids and magnesium sulfate, and in expectant management decisions. The test itself has the potential to save lives. Furthermore, the availability of a molecular test that correlates with adverse outcomes has set the stage for interventional clinical trials testing treatments for this disorder. In this review, we will discuss the role of circulating sFlt-1 and related factors in the pathogenesis of preeclampsia and specifically how this discovery is leading to concrete advances in the care of women with preeclampsia.

Smooth Muscle Mineralocorticoid Receptor Promotes Hypertension After Preeclampsia.

BACKGROUND: Preeclampsia is a syndrome of high blood pressure (BP) with end organ damage in late pregnancy that is associated with high circulating soluble VEGF receptor (sFlt1 [soluble Fms-like tyrosine kinase 1]). Women exposed to preeclampsia have a substantially increased risk of hypertension after pregnancy, but the mechanism remains unknown, leaving a missed interventional opportunity. After preeclampsia, women have enhanced sensitivity to hypertensive stress. Since smooth muscle cell mineralocorticoid receptors (SMC-MR) are activated by hypertensive stimuli, we hypothesized that high sFlt1 exposure in pregnancy induces a postpartum state of enhanced SMC-MR responsiveness. METHODS: Postpartum BP response to high salt intake was studied in women with prior preeclampsia. MR transcriptional activity was assessed in vitro in sFlt1-treated SMC by reporter assays and PCR. Preeclampsia was modeled by transient sFlt1 expression in pregnant mice. Two months post-partum, mice were exposed to high salt and then to AngII (angiotensin II) and BP and vasoconstriction were measured. RESULTS: Women exposed to preeclampsia had significantly enhanced salt sensitivity of BP verses those with a normotensive pregnancy. sFlt1 overexpression during pregnancy in mice induced elevated BP and glomerular endotheliosis, which resolved post-partum. The sFlt1 exposed post-partum mice had significantly increased BP response to 4% salt diet and to AngII infusion. In vitro, SMC-MR transcriptional activity in response to aldosterone or AngII was significantly increased after transient exposure to sFlt1 as was aldosterone-induced expression of AngII type 1 receptor. Post-partum, SMC-MR-KO mice were protected from the enhanced response to hypertensive stimuli after preeclampsia. Mechanistically, preeclampsia mice exposed to postpartum hypertensive stimuli develop enhanced aortic stiffness, microvascular myogenic tone, AngII constriction, and AngII type 1 receptor expression, all of which were prevented in SMC-MR-KO littermates. CONCLUSIONS: These data support that sFlt1-induced vascular injury during preeclampsia produces a persistent state of enhanced sensitivity of SMC-MR to activation. This contributes to postpartum hypertension in response to common stresses and supports testing of MR antagonism to mitigate the increased cardiovascular risk in women after PE.

Prior Exposure to Experimental Preeclampsia Increases Atherosclerotic Plaque Inflammation in Atherogenic Mice-Brief Report.

BACKGROUND: Women with a history of preeclampsia have evidence of premature atherosclerosis and increased risk of myocardial infarction and stroke compared with women who had a normotensive pregnancy. Whether this is due to common risk factors or a direct impact of prior preeclampsia exposure has never been tested in a mouse atherosclerosis model. METHODS: Pregnant LDLR-KO (low-density lipoprotein receptor knockout; n=35) female mice were randomized in midgestation to sFlt1 (soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1)-expressing adenovirus or identical control adenovirus. Postpartum, mice were fed high-fat diet for 8 weeks to induce atherogenesis. Comparison between the control and preeclampsia models was made for metabolic parameters, atherosclerosis burden and composition by histology, plaque inflammation by flow cytometry, and aortic cytokines and inflammatory markers using a cytokine array. RESULTS: In pregnant LDLR-KO mice, sFlt1 adenovirus significantly induced serum sFlt1, blood pressure, renal endotheliosis, and decreased pup viability. After 8 weeks of postpartum high fat feeding, body weight, fasting glucose, plasma cholesterol, HDL (high-density lipoprotein), and LDL (low-density lipoprotein) were not significantly different between groups with no change in aortic root plaque size, lipid content, or necrotic core area. Flow cytometry demonstrated significantly increased CD45+ aortic arch leukocytes and CD3+T cells and aortic lysate contained more CCL (CC motif chemokine ligand) 22 and fetuin A and decreased expression of IGFBP6 (insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 6) and CCL21 in preeclampsia-exposed mice compared with controls. CONCLUSIONS: In atherogenic LDLR-KO mice, exposure to sFlt1-induced preeclampsia during pregnancy increases future atherosclerotic plaque inflammation, supporting the concept that preeclampsia directly exacerbates atherosclerotic inflammation independent of preexisting risk factors. This mechanism may contribute to ischemic vascular disease in women after preeclampsia pregnancy.

Author Correction: Metabolic reprogramming by the S-nitroso-CoA reductase system protects against kidney injury.

Change history: In Fig. 1j of this Letter, one data point was inadvertently omitted from the graph for the acute kidney injury (AKI), double knockout (-/-), S-nitrosothiol (SNO) condition at a nitrosylation level of 25.9 pmol mg-1 and the statistical significance given of P = 0.0221 was determined by Fisher's test instead of P = 0.0032 determined by Tukey's test (with normalization for test-day instrument baseline). Figure 1 and its Source Data have been corrected online.

Metabolic reprogramming by the S-nitroso-CoA reductase system protects against kidney injury.

Endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) is protective against kidney injury, but the molecular mechanisms of this protection are poorly understood1,2. Nitric oxide-based cellular signalling is generally mediated by protein S-nitrosylation, the oxidative modification of Cys residues to form S-nitrosothiols (SNOs). S-nitrosylation regulates proteins in all functional classes, and is controlled by enzymatic machinery that includes S-nitrosylases and denitrosylases, which add and remove SNO from proteins, respectively3,4. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the classic metabolic intermediate co-enzyme A (CoA) serves as an endogenous source of SNOs through its conjugation with nitric oxide to form S-nitroso-CoA (SNO-CoA), and S-nitrosylation of proteins by SNO-CoA is governed by its cognate denitrosylase, SNO-CoA reductase (SCoR)5. Mammals possess a functional homologue of yeast SCoR, an aldo-keto reductase family member (AKR1A1)5 with an unknown physiological role. Here we report that the SNO-CoA-AKR1A1 system is highly expressed in renal proximal tubules, where it transduces the activity of eNOS in reprogramming intermediary metabolism, thereby protecting kidneys against acute kidney injury. Specifically, deletion of Akr1a1 in mice to reduce SCoR activity increased protein S-nitrosylation, protected against acute kidney injury and improved survival, whereas this protection was lost when Enos (also known as Nos3) was also deleted. Metabolic profiling coupled with unbiased mass spectrometry-based SNO-protein identification revealed that protection by the SNO-CoA-SCoR system is mediated by inhibitory S-nitrosylation of pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) through a novel locus of regulation, thereby balancing fuel utilization (through glycolysis) with redox protection (through the pentose phosphate shunt). Targeted deletion of PKM2 from mouse proximal tubules recapitulated precisely the protective and mechanistic effects of S-nitrosylation in Akr1a1-/- mice, whereas Cys-mutant PKM2, which is refractory to S-nitrosylation, negated SNO-CoA bioactivity. Our results identify a physiological function of the SNO-CoA-SCoR system in mammals, describe new regulation of renal metabolism and of PKM2 in differentiated tissues, and offer a novel perspective on kidney injury with therapeutic implications.

High-throughput mRNA-seq atlas of human placenta shows vast transcriptome remodeling from first to third trimester†.

The placenta, composed of chorionic villi, changes dramatically across gestation. Understanding differences in ongoing pregnancies are essential to identify the role of chorionic villi at specific times in gestation and develop biomarkers and prognostic indicators of maternal-fetal health. The normative mRNA profile is established using next-generation sequencing of 124 first trimester and 43 third trimester human placentas from ongoing healthy pregnancies. Stably expressed genes (SEGs) not different between trimesters and with low variability are identified. Differential expression analysis of first versus third trimester adjusted for fetal sex is performed, followed by a subanalysis with 23 matched pregnancies to control for subject variability using the same genetic and environmental background. Placenta expresses 14,979 polyadenylated genes above sequencing noise (transcripts per million > 0.66), with 10.7% SEGs across gestation. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) account for 86.7% of genes in the full cohort [false discovery rate (FDR) < 0.05]. Fold changes highly correlate between the full cohort and subanalysis (Pearson = 0.98). At stricter thresholds (FDR < 0.001, fold change > 1.5), there remains 50.1% DEGs (3353 upregulated in first and 4155 upregulated in third trimester). This is the largest mRNA atlas of healthy human placenta across gestation, controlling for genetic and environmental factors, demonstrating substantial changes from first to third trimester in chorionic villi. Specific differences and SEGs may be used to understand the specific role of the chorionic villi throughout gestation and develop first trimester biomarkers of placental health that transpire across gestation, which can be used for future development of biomarkers for maternal-fetal health.

Glycated Albumin and Adverse Clinical Outcomes in Patients With CKD: A Prospective Cohort Study.

RATIONALE & OBJECTIVE: Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) is widely used to estimate glycemia, yet it is less reliable in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). There is growing interest in the complementary use of glycated albumin (GA) to improve glycemic monitoring and risk stratification. However, whether GA associates with clinical outcomes in a non-dialysis-dependent CKD population remains unknown. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SETTING & PARTICIPANTS: 3,110 participants with CKD from the Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort study. EXPOSURE: Baseline GA levels. OUTCOME: Incident end-stage kidney disease (ESKD), cardiovascular disease (CVD) events, and all-cause mortality. ANALYTICAL APPROACH: Cox proportional hazards regression. RESULTS: Participant characteristics included mean age 59.0±10.8 SD years; 1,357 (43.6%) female; and 1,550 (49.8%) with diabetes. The median GA was 18.7% (IQR, 15.8%-23.3%). During an average 7.9-year follow-up, there were 980 ESKD events, 968 CVD events, and 1,084 deaths. Higher GA levels were associated with greater risks of all outcomes, regardless of diabetes status: hazard ratios for ESKD, CVD, and death among participants with the highest quartile compared with quartile 2 (reference) were 1.42 (95% CI, 1.19-1.69), 1.67 (95% CI, 1.39-2.01), and 1.63 (95% CI, 1.37-1.94), respectively. The associations with CVD and death appeared J-shaped, with increased risk also seen at the lowest GA levels. Among patients with coexisting CKD and diabetes, the associations of GA with outcomes remained significant even after adjusting for HbA1c. For each outcome, we observed a significant increase in the fraction of new prognostic information when both GA and HbA1c were added to models. LIMITATIONS: Lack of longitudinal GA measurements; and HbA1c measurements were largely unavailable in participants without diabetes. CONCLUSIONS: Among patients with CKD, GA levels were independently associated with risks of ESKD, CVD, and mortality, regardless of diabetes status. GA added prognostic value to HbA1c among patients with coexisting CKD and diabetes. PLAIN-LANGUAGE SUMMARY: Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) is widely used to estimate glycemia, yet it is less reliable in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). There is growing interest in the complementary use of glycated albumin (GA) to improve glycemic monitoring and risk stratification. However, whether GA associates with clinical outcomes in a non-dialysis-dependent CKD population remains unknown. In this cohort study of 3,110 individuals with non-dialysis-dependent CKD, GA levels were independently associated with risks of end-stage kidney disease, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and mortality. The associations with CVD and mortality appeared to be J-shaped. Among patients with coexisting CKD and diabetes, GA added prognostic value to HbA1c. Thus, GA may be a valuable complementary test to HbA1c in patients with CKD.

Plasma soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 to placental growth factor ratio of 11.5 multiples of median predicts preeclampsia with severe features within 2 weeks of testing.

BACKGROUND: Angiogenic imbalances, characterized by an excess of antiangiogenic factors (soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1) and reduced angiogenic factors (vascular endothelial growth factor and placental growth factor), contribute to the mechanisms of disease in preeclampsia. The ratio of soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 to placental growth factor has been used as a biomarker for preeclampsia, but the cutoff values may vary with gestational age and assay platform. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to compare multiples of the median of the maternal plasma soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 to placental growth factor ratio, soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1, placental growth factor, and conventional clinical and laboratory values in their ability to predict preeclampsia with severe features. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a cohort study across 18 United States centers involving hospitalized individuals with hypertension between 23 and 35 weeks' gestation. Receiver operating characteristic curve analyses of maternal plasma biomarkers, highest systolic or diastolic blood pressures, and laboratory values at enrollment were performed for the prediction of preeclampsia with severe features. The areas under the curve were compared, and quasi-Poisson regression models were fitted to estimate relative risks. The primary outcome was preeclampsia with severe features within 2 weeks of enrollment. Secondary outcomes were a composite of severe adverse maternal outcomes (elevated liver enzymes, low platelets count, placental abruption, eclampsia, disseminated intravascular coagulation, and pulmonary edema) and a composite of severe adverse perinatal outcomes (birth weight below the third percentile, very preterm birth [<32 weeks' gestation], and fetal or neonatal death). RESULTS: Of the 543 individuals included in the study, preeclampsia with severe features within 2 weeks was observed in 33.1% (n=180) of them. A receiver operating characteristic curve-derived cutoff of 11.5 multiples of the median for the soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 to placental growth factor plasma ratio provided good sensitivity (90.6%), specificity (76.9%), positive predictive value (66.0%), negative predictive value (94.3%), positive likelihood ratio (3.91), negative likelihood ratio (0.12), and accuracy (81.4%) for preeclampsia with severe features within 2 weeks. This cutoff was used to compare test positive cases (≥ cutoff) and test negative cases (< cutoff). Preeclampsia with severe features (66.0% vs 5.7%; P<.001) and composites of severe adverse maternal (8.11% vs 2.7%; P=.006) or perinatal (41.3% vs 10.14%; P=.001) outcomes within 2 weeks were more frequent in test positive cases than in test negative cases. A soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 to placental growth factor plasma ratio ≥11.5 multiples of the median was independently associated with preeclampsia with severe features (adjusted incidence rate ratio, 9.08; 95% confidence interval, 6.11-14.06; P<.001) and a composite of severe adverse perinatal outcomes (adjusted incidence rate ratio, 9.42; 95% confidence interval, 6.36-14.53; P<.001) but not with a composite of severe adverse maternal outcomes (adjusted incidence rate ratio, 2.20; 95% confidence interval, 0.95-5.54; P=.08). The area under the curve for the soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 to placental growth factor plasma ratio in multiples of the median (0.91; 95% confidence interval, 0.89-0.94) for preeclampsia with severe features within 2 weeks was significantly higher (P<.001 for all comparisons) than either plasma biomarker alone or any other parameter with the exception of absolute soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 to placental growth factor plasma ratio values. CONCLUSION: A soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 to placental growth factor plasma ratio ≥11.5 multiples of the mean among hospitalized patients with hypertension between 23 and 35 week's gestation predicts progression to preeclampsia with severe features and severe adverse perinatal outcomes within 2 weeks.

Animal Models of Cardiovascular Complications of Pregnancy.

Cardiovascular complications of pregnancy have risen substantially over the past decades, and now account for the majority of pregnancy-induced maternal deaths, as well as having substantial long-term consequences on maternal cardiovascular health. The causes and pathophysiology of these complications remain poorly understood, and therapeutic options are limited. Preclinical models represent a crucial tool for understanding human disease. We review here advances made in preclinical models of cardiovascular complications of pregnancy, including preeclampsia and peripartum cardiomyopathy, with a focus on pathological mechanisms elicited by the models and on relevance to human disease.

Protein Carbamylation and the Risk of ESKD in Patients with CKD.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Protein carbamylation, a nonenzymatic post-translational protein modification partially driven by elevated blood urea levels, associates with mortality and adverse outcomes in patients with ESKD on dialysis. However, little is known about carbamylation's relationship to clinical outcomes in the much larger population of patients with earlier stages of CKD. In this prospective observational cohort study of 3111 individuals with CKD stages 2-4, higher levels of carbamylated albumin (a marker of protein carbamylation burden) were associated with a greater risk of developing ESKD and other significant adverse clinical outcomes. These findings indicate that protein carbamylation is an independent risk factor for CKD progression. They suggest that further study of therapeutic interventions to prevent or reduce carbamylation is warranted. BACKGROUND: Protein carbamylation, a post-translational protein modification partially driven by elevated blood urea levels, associates with adverse outcomes in ESKD. However, little is known about protein carbamylation's relationship to clinical outcomes in the much larger population of patients with earlier stages of CKD. METHODS: To test associations between protein carbamylation and the primary outcome of progression to ESKD, we measured baseline serum carbamylated albumin (C-Alb) in 3111 patients with CKD stages 2-4 enrolled in the prospective observational Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort study. RESULTS: The mean age of study participants was 59 years (SD 10.8); 1358 (43.7%) were female, and 1334 (42.9%) were White. The mean eGFR at the time of C-Alb assessment was 41.8 (16.4) ml/minute per 1.73 m 2 , and the median C-Alb value was 7.8 mmol/mol (interquartile range, 5.8-10.7). During an average of 7.9 (4.1) years of follow-up, 981 (31.5%) individuals developed ESKD. In multivariable adjusted Cox models, higher C-Alb (continuous or quartiles) independently associated with an increased risk of ESKD. For example, compared with quartile 1 (C-Alb ≤5.80 mmol/mol), those in quartile 4 (C-Alb >10.71 mmol/mol) had a greater risk for ESKD (adjusted hazard ratio, 2.29; 95% confidence interval, 1.75 to 2.99), and the ESKD incidence rate per 1000 patient-years increased from 15.7 to 88.5 from quartile 1 to quartile 4. The results remained significant across numerous subgroup analyses, when treating death as a competing event, and using different assessments of eGFR. CONCLUSIONS: Having a higher level of protein carbamylation as measured by circulating C-Alb is an independent risk factor for ESKD in individuals with CKD stages 2-4. PODCAST: This article contains a podcast at https://dts.podtrac.com/redirect.mp3/www.asn-online.org/media/podcast/JASN/2023_04_24_JSN_URE_EP22_042423.mp3.

Strikingly High Activity of 15-Lipoxygenase Towards Di-Polyunsaturated Arachidonoyl/Adrenoyl-Phosphatidylethanolamines Generates Peroxidation Signals of Ferroptotic Cell Death.

The vast majority of membrane phospholipids (PLs) include two asymmetrically positioned fatty acyls: oxidizable polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) attached predominantly at the sn2 position, and non-oxidizable saturated/monounsaturated acids (SFA/MUFA) localized at the sn1 position. The peroxidation of PUFA-PLs, particularly sn2-arachidonoyl(AA)- and sn2-adrenoyl(AdA)-containing phosphatidylethanolamines (PE), has been associated with the execution of ferroptosis, a program of regulated cell death. There is a minor subpopulation (≈1-2 mol %) of doubly PUFA-acylated phospholipids (di-PUFA-PLs) whose role in ferroptosis remains enigmatic. Here we report that 15-lipoxygenase (15LOX) exhibits unexpectedly high pro-ferroptotic peroxidation activity towards di-PUFA-PEs. We revealed that peroxidation of several molecular species of di-PUFA-PEs occurred early in ferroptosis. Ferrostatin-1, a typical ferroptosis inhibitor, effectively prevented peroxidation of di-PUFA-PEs. Furthermore, co-incubation of cells with di-AA-PE and 15LOX produced PUFA-PE peroxidation and induced ferroptotic death. The decreased contents of di-PUFA-PEs in ACSL4 KO A375 cells was associated with lower levels of di-PUFA-PE peroxidation and enhanced resistance to ferroptosis. Thus, di-PUFA-PE species are newly identified phospholipid peroxidation substrates and regulators of ferroptosis, representing a promising therapeutic target for many diseases related to ferroptotic death.

Perinatal mood and anxiety disorders: biomarker discovery using plasma proteomics.

BACKGROUND: Perinatal mood and anxiety disorders encompass a range of mental health disorders that occur during pregnancy and up to 1 year postpartum, affecting approximately 20% of women. Traditional risk factors, such as a history of depression and pregnancy complications including preeclampsia, are known. Their predictive utility, however, is not specific or sensitive enough to inform clinical decision-making or prevention strategies for perinatal mood and anxiety disorders. Better diagnostic and prognostic models are needed for early identification and referral to treatment. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to determine if a panel of novel third-trimester plasma protein biomarkers in pregnant women can be used to identify those who have a high predisposed risk for perinatal mood and anxiety disorders within 3 months postpartum. STUDY DESIGN: We studied 52 women (n=34 with a risk for perinatal mood and anxiety disorders and n=18 controls) among whom mental health screening was conducted at 2 time points, namely in the third trimester and again at 3 months postdelivery. An elevated perinatal mood and anxiety disorder risk was identified by screening individuals with above-validated cutoffs for depression (Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale ≥12), anxiety (Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale ≥7), and/or posttraumatic stress disorder (Impact of Events Scale >26) at both time points. Plasma samples collected in the third trimester were screened using the aptamer-based SomaLogic SomaScan proteomic assay technology to evaluate perinatal mood and anxiety disorder-associated changes in the expression of 1305 protein analytes. Ingenuity Pathway Analysis was conducted to highlight pathophysiological relationships between perinatal mood and anxiety disorder-specific proteins found to be significantly up- or down-regulated in all subjects with perinatal mood and anxiety disorder and in those with perinatal mood and anxiety disorders and no preeclampsia. RESULTS: From a panel of 53 significant perinatal mood and anxiety disorder-associated proteins, a unique 20-protein signature differentiated perinatal mood and anxiety disorder cases from controls in a principal component analysis (P<.05). This protein signature included NCAM1, NRCAM, and NTRK3 that converge around neuronal signaling pathways regulating axonal guidance, astrocyte differentiation, and maintenance of GABAergic neurons. Interestingly, when we restricted the analysis to subjects without preeclampsia, a 30-protein signature differentiated perinatal mood and anxiety disorder cases from all controls without overlap on the principal component analysis (P<.001). In the nonpreeclamptic perinatal mood and anxiety disorder group, we observed increased expression of proteins, such as CXCL11, CXCL6, MIC-B, and B2MG, which regulate leucocyte migration, inflammation, and immune function. CONCLUSION: Participants with perinatal mood and anxiety disorders had a unique and distinct plasma protein signature that regulated a variety of neuronal signaling and proinflammatory pathways. Additional validation studies with larger sample sizes are needed to determine whether some of these molecules can be used in conjunction with traditional risk factors for the early detection of perinatal mood and anxiety disorders.

Imbalances in circulating angiogenic factors in the pathophysiology of preeclampsia and related disorders.

Preeclampsia is a devastating medical complication of pregnancy that can lead to significant maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality. It is currently believed that there is abnormal placentation in as early as the first trimester in women destined to develop preeclampsia. Although the etiology of the abnormal placentation is being debated, numerous epidemiologic and experimental studies suggest that imbalances in circulating angiogenic factors released from the placenta are responsible for the maternal signs and symptoms of preeclampsia. In particular, circulating levels of soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1, an antiangiogenic factor, are markedly increased in women with preeclampsia, whereas free levels of its ligand, placental, growth factor are markedly diminished. Alterations in these angiogenic factors precede the onset of clinical signs of preeclampsia and correlate with disease severity. Recently, the availability of automated assays for the measurement of angiogenic biomarkers in the plasma, serum, and urine has helped investigators worldwide to demonstrate a key role for these factors in the clinical diagnosis and prediction of preeclampsia. Numerous studies have reported that circulating angiogenic biomarkers have a very high negative predictive value to rule out clinical disease among women with suspected preeclampsia. These blood-based biomarkers have provided a valuable tool to clinicians to accelerate the time to clinical diagnosis and minimize maternal adverse outcomes in women with preeclampsia. Angiogenic biomarkers have also been useful to elucidate the pathogenesis of related disorders of abnormal placentation such as intrauterine growth restriction, intrauterine fetal death, twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome, and fetal hydrops. In summary, the discovery and characterization of angiogenic proteins of placental origin have provided clinicians a noninvasive blood-based tool to monitor placental function and health and for early detection of disorders of placentation. Uncovering the mechanisms of altered angiogenic factors in preeclampsia and related disorders of placentation may provide insights into novel preventive and therapeutic options.

Systemic interleukin-6 inhibition ameliorates acute neuropsychiatric phenotypes in a murine model of acute lung injury.

Acute neuropsychiatric impairments occur in over 70% of patients with acute lung injury. Mechanical ventilation is a well-known precipitant of acute lung injury and is strongly associated with the development of acute delirium and anxiety phenotypes. In prior studies, we demonstrated that IL-6 mediates neuropathological changes in the frontal cortex and hippocampus of animals with mechanical ventilation-induced brain injury; however, the effect of systemic IL-6 inhibition on structural and functional acute neuropsychiatric phenotypes is not known. We hypothesized that a murine model of mechanical ventilation-induced acute lung injury (VILI) would induce neural injury to the amygdala and hippocampus, brain regions that are implicated in diverse neuropsychiatric conditions, and corresponding delirium- and anxiety-like functional impairments. Furthermore, we hypothesized that these structural and functional changes would reverse with systemic IL-6 inhibition. VILI was induced using high tidal volume (35 cc/kg) mechanical ventilation. Cleaved caspase-3 (CC3) expression was quantified as a neural injury marker and found to be significantly increased in the VILI group compared to spontaneously breathing or anesthetized and mechanically ventilated mice with 10 cc/kg tidal volume. VILI mice treated with systemic IL-6 inhibition had significantly reduced amygdalar and hippocampal CC3 expression compared to saline-treated animals and demonstrated amelioration in acute neuropsychiatric behaviors in open field, elevated plus maze, and Y-maze tests. Overall, these data provide evidence of a pathogenic role of systemic IL-6 in mediating structural and functional acute neuropsychiatric symptoms in VILI and provide preclinical justification to assess IL-6 inhibition as a potential intervention to ameliorate acute neuropsychiatric phenotypes following VILI.

PGC1α drives NAD biosynthesis linking oxidative metabolism to renal protection.

The energetic burden of continuously concentrating solutes against gradients along the tubule may render the kidney especially vulnerable to ischaemia. Acute kidney injury (AKI) affects 3% of all hospitalized patients. Here we show that the mitochondrial biogenesis regulator, PGC1α, is a pivotal determinant of renal recovery from injury by regulating nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) biosynthesis. Following renal ischaemia, Pgc1α(-/-) (also known as Ppargc1a(-/-)) mice develop local deficiency of the NAD precursor niacinamide (NAM, also known as nicotinamide), marked fat accumulation, and failure to re-establish normal function. Notably, exogenous NAM improves local NAD levels, fat accumulation, and renal function in post-ischaemic Pgc1α(-/-) mice. Inducible tubular transgenic mice (iNephPGC1α) recapitulate the effects of NAM supplementation, including more local NAD and less fat accumulation with better renal function after ischaemia. PGC1α coordinately upregulates the enzymes that synthesize NAD de novo from amino acids whereas PGC1α deficiency or AKI attenuates the de novo pathway. NAM enhances NAD via the enzyme NAMPT and augments production of the fat breakdown product ß-hydroxybutyrate, leading to increased production of prostaglandin PGE2 (ref. 5), a secreted autacoid that maintains renal function. NAM treatment reverses established ischaemic AKI and also prevented AKI in an unrelated toxic model. Inhibition of ß-hydroxybutyrate signalling or prostaglandin production similarly abolishes PGC1α-dependent renoprotection. Given the importance of mitochondrial health in ageing and the function of metabolically active organs, the results implicate NAM and NAD as key effectors for achieving PGC1α-dependent stress resistance.

Risk-Factor Based Lead Screening and Correlation with Blood Lead Levels in Pregnancy.

OBJECTIVES: Lead exposure has devastating neurologic consequences for children and may begin in utero. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommends prenatal lead screening using a risk factor-based approach rather than universal blood testing. The clinical utility of this approach has not been studied. We evaluated a risk-factor based questionnaire to detect elevated blood lead levels in pregnancy. METHODS: We performed a secondary analysis of a cohort of parturients enrolled to evaluate the association of lead with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. We included participants in this analysis if they had a singleton pregnancy ≥ 34 weeks' gestation with blood lead levels recorded. Participants completed a lead risk factor survey modified for pregnancy. We defined elevated blood lead as ≥ 2 µg/dL, as this was the clinically reportable level. RESULTS: Of 102 participants enrolled in the cohort, 92 had blood lead measured as part of the study. The vast majority (78%) had 1 or more risk factor for elevated lead using the questionnaire yet none had clinical blood lead testing during routine visits. Only two participants (2.2%) had elevated blood lead levels. The questionnaire had high sensitivity but poor specificity for predicting detectable lead levels (sensitivity 100%, specificity 22%). CONCLUSIONS FOR PRACTICE: Prenatal risk-factor based lead screening appears underutilized in practice and does not adequately discriminate between those with and without elevated blood levels. Given the complexity of the risk factor-based approach and underutilization, the benefit and cost-effectiveness of universal lead testing should be further explored.

IL-6 Inhibition Reduces Neuronal Injury in a Murine Model of Ventilator-induced Lung Injury.

Mechanical ventilation is a known risk factor for delirium, a cognitive impairment characterized by dysfunction of the frontal cortex and hippocampus. Although IL-6 is upregulated in mechanical ventilation-induced lung injury (VILI) and may contribute to delirium, it is not known whether the inhibition of systemic IL-6 mitigates delirium-relevant neuropathology. To histologically define neuropathological effects of IL-6 inhibition in an experimental VILI model, VILI was simulated in anesthetized adult mice using a 35 cc/kg tidal volume mechanical ventilation model. There were two control groups, as follow: 1) spontaneously breathing or 2) anesthetized and mechanically ventilated with 10 cc/kg tidal volume to distinguish effects of anesthesia from VILI. Two hours before inducing VILI, mice were treated with either anti-IL-6 antibody, anti-IL-6 receptor antibody, or saline. Neuronal injury, stress, and inflammation were assessed using immunohistochemistry. CC3 (cleaved caspase-3), a neuronal apoptosis marker, was significantly increased in the frontal (P < 0.001) and hippocampal (P < 0.0001) brain regions and accompanied by significant increases in c-Fos and heat shock protein-90 in the frontal cortices of VILI mice compared with control mice (P < 0.001). These findings were not related to cerebral hypoxia, and there was no evidence of irreversible neuronal death. Frontal and hippocampal neuronal CC3 were significantly reduced with anti-IL-6 antibody (P < 0.01 and P < 0.0001, respectively) and anti-IL-6 receptor antibody (P < 0.05 and P < 0.0001, respectively) compared with saline VILI mice. In summary, VILI induces potentially reversible neuronal injury and inflammation in the frontal cortex and hippocampus, which is mitigated with systemic IL-6 inhibition. These data suggest a potentially novel neuroprotective role of systemic IL-6 inhibition that justifies further investigation.

Interleukin-6 mediates delirium-like phenotypes in a murine model of urinary tract infection.

BACKGROUND: Urinary tract infection (UTI) is frequently implicated as a precipitant of delirium, which refers to an acute confusional state that is associated with high mortality, increased length of stay, and long-term cognitive decline. The pathogenesis of delirium is thought to involve cytokine-mediated neuronal dysfunction of the frontal cortex and hippocampus. We hypothesized that systemic IL-6 inhibition would mitigate delirium-like phenotypes in a mouse model of UTI. METHODS: C57/BL6 mice were randomized to either: (1) non-UTI control, (2) UTI, and (3) UTI + anti-IL-6 antibody. UTI was induced by transurethral inoculation of 1 × 108 Escherichia coli. Frontal cortex and hippocampus-mediated behaviors were evaluated using functional testing and corresponding structural changes were evaluated via quantification of neuronal cleaved caspase-3 (CC3) by immunohistochemistry and western blot. IL-6 in the brain and plasma were evaluated using immunohistochemistry, ELISA, and RT-PCR. RESULTS: Compared to non-UTI control mice, mice with UTI demonstrated significantly greater impairments in frontal and hippocampus-mediated behaviors, specifically increased thigmotaxis in Open Field (p < 0.05) and reduced spontaneous alternations in Y-maze (p < 0.01), while treatment of UTI mice with systemic anti-IL-6 fully reversed these functional impairments. These behavioral impairments correlated with frontal and hippocampal neuronal CC3 changes, with significantly increased frontal and hippocampal CC3 in UTI mice compared to non-UTI controls (p < 0.0001), and full reversal of UTI-induced CC3 neuronal changes following treatment with systemic anti-IL-6 antibody (p < 0.0001). Plasma IL-6 was significantly elevated in UTI mice compared to non-UTI controls (p < 0.01) and there were positive and significant correlations between plasma IL-6 and frontal CC3 (r2 = 0.5087/p = 0.0028) and frontal IL-6 and CC3 (r2 = 0.2653, p < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: These data provide evidence for a role for IL-6 in mediating delirium-like phenotypes in a mouse model of UTI. These findings provide pre-clinical justification for clinical investigations of IL-6 inhibitors to treat UTI-induced delirium.

Preeclampsia: Pathophysiology, Challenges, and Perspectives

Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy-chronic hypertension, gestational hypertension, and preeclampsia-are uniquely challenging as the pathology and its therapeutic management simultaneously affect mother and fetus, sometimes putting their well-being at odds with each other. Preeclampsia, in particular, is one of the most feared complications of pregnancy. Often presenting as new-onset hypertension and proteinuria during the third trimester, preeclampsia can progress rapidly to serious complications, including death of both mother and fetus. While the cause of preeclampsia is still debated, clinical and pathological studies suggest that the placenta is central to the pathogenesis of this syndrome. In this review, we will discuss the current evidence for the role of abnormal placentation and the role of placental factors such as the antiangiogenic factor, sFLT1 (soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1) in the pathogenesis of the maternal syndrome of preeclampsia. We will discuss angiogenic biomarker assays for disease-risk stratification and for the development of therapeutic strategies targeting the angiogenic pathway. Finally, we will review the substantial long-term cardiovascular and metabolic risks to mothers and children associated with gestational hypertensive disorders, in particular, preterm preeclampsia, and the need for an increased focus on interventional studies during the asymptomatic phase to delay the onset of cardiovascular disease in women.