Biphasic action of aldosterone on Akt signaling in cardiomyocytes.

Both aldosterone and Akt signaling play pivotal roles in the pathogenesis of heart failure. However, little is known about the correlation between them. We herein investigated whether aldosterone interacts with Akt signaling in a coordinated manner in cardiomyocytes. Neonatal rat cardiomyocytes were stimulated with aldosterone for either a short (10-min) or long (24-h) time. The phosphorylation of Akt and its downstream effector, GSK3ß, were transiently increased after short-term stimulation, which was blocked by either PI3K or Na(+)/H(+) exchanger inhibitors, but not by the mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist, eplerenone. Long-term stimulation also significantly increased Akt-GSK3ß phosphorylation and this effect was reduced by eplerenone. Thus, these results suggest that aldosterone activates Akt signaling via a biphasic reaction that occurs through different cascades. To understand the significance of the rapid action of aldosterone, cardiomyocytes were exposed to hydrogen peroxide for from 10 to 60 min. A short-term aldosterone stimulation (for up to 30 min) significantly protected cardiomyocytes from oxidative stress-induced cellular damage. Eplerenone did not abrogate this beneficial effect, while a PI3K inhibitor did. Therefore, during the early phase, aldosterone has favorable effects on cardiomyocytes, partly by acute activation of a mineralocorticoid receptor-independent cascade through the Na(+)/H(+) exchanger, PI3K, and Akt. In contrast, its persistent activity produces pathological effects partly by chronic Akt activation in a mineralocorticoid receptor-dependent manner.

Phencyclidine affects firing activity of basolateral amygdala neurons related to social behavior in rats.

Negative symptoms of schizophrenia, such as social withdrawal and blunted affect, usually persist for a long period, making rehabilitation difficult. Many studies have demonstrated a close relationship between function of the amygdala and social behavior. Normal social behavior is disturbed in animals administered phencyclidine (PCP), which is now considered a reliable pharmacological model of schizophrenia. Recent studies have reported that disruption of social behavior in PCP-treated rats involved dysfunction of the amygdala. Disturbance of function of the amygdala has also been reported in schizophrenic patients. However, no study has yet examined the effects of PCP on the firing activity of amygdala neurons. In the present study, we recorded the unit activity of basolateral amygdala neurons while rats engaged in socially interactive behavior. After identifying the response properties of recorded neurons, we then recorded the same neurons with systemic PCP administration. Approximately half of the neurons recorded from exhibited an increase in spontaneous discharge rate during social interaction. Only a few neurons exhibited suppression of discharge rate during social interaction. Systemic administration of PCP induced long-lasting activation in half of the neurons that exhibited an increase in firing rate during social interaction. PCP activated half of basolateral amygdala neurons related to socially interactive behavior, and might in this fashion produce dysfunction of social behavior.

The septal area, site for the central regulation of penile erection during waking and rapid eye movement sleep in rats: a stimulation study.

The effects of electrical stimulation to the septum on penile erections in rats were examined to clarify the mechanisms for regulation of erectile responses during different states of vigilance. Penile responses were assessed by changes in pressure in the corpus spongiosum of penis (CSP) and electromyography (EMG) of the bulbospongiosus (BS) muscle. In anesthetized and un-anesthetized rats, stimulation in and around the septum induced three erectile patterns; 1) a Normal type response, which was indistinguishable from a spontaneous erection, characterized by a slow increase in CSP pressure with sharp CSP pressure peaks associated with BS muscle bursts, 2) Mixed type response, in which high frequency CSP pressure peaks were followed by a Normal type response, and 3) a Prolonged type response, evoked only in the anesthetized rat, consisting of a single sharp CSP peak followed by a slow increase in CSP pressure and a return to baseline with multiple subsequent events repeated for up to 960 s. In addition, a Micturition type response was also observed involving high frequency CSP pressure oscillations similar to the pressure pattern seen during spontaneous micturition. We found that erections were induced after stimulation to the lateral septum (LS), but not from the medial septum (MS). In anesthetized rats, a few responses were also obtained following stimulation of the horizontal limb of diagonal band (HDB). In un-anesthetized rats, responses were also induced from the HDB and the ventral limb of diagonal band (VDB) and the adjoining areas. The effective sites for eliciting erection during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep were located in the dorsal and intermediate parts of the LS, whereas the ventral part of the LS was the most effective site for eliciting erections during wakefulness. These results suggest a functional role for penile erection in the septum, and further suggest that subdivisions of the LS may have different roles in the regulation of penile erection during wakefulness and REM sleep.

Activation of medial prefrontal cortex neurons by phencyclidine is mediated via AMPA/kainate glutamate receptors in anesthetized rats.

Phencyclidine (PCP) is a psychotomimetic drug that elicits schizophrenia-like symptoms in healthy individuals, and animals administered PCP are now considered a reliable pharmacological model of schizophrenia. Recent studies have shown that systemically administered PCP produces long-lasting activation of medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) neurons, and that hyperactivation of mPFC neurons plays a critically important role in the development of PCP-induced behavioral abnormalities. However, the receptors mediating this mPFC activation have not been clearly determined. Here, we examined the effects of local application of 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (CNQX), an AMPA/kainate glutamate receptor antagonist, scopolamine, a muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist, and mecamylamine, a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist, on the increase in firing rate of mPFC neurons induced by systemic PCP in anesthetized rats. After tonic activation of mPFC neurons by PCP had been established, CNQX, scopolamine, or mecamylamine was iontophoretically applied or pressure-ejected on the recorded neuron. CNQX suppressed PCP-induced elevation of firing rate to baseline level, though scopolamine and mecamylamine each induced little change in firing rate. These findings suggest that PCP-induced activation of mPFC neurons is mediated primarily via AMPA/kainate glutamate receptors.

Diazepines. 5. Synthesis and biological action of 6-phenyl-4H-pyrrolo[1,2-a][1,4]benzodiazepines.

A series of 6-phenyl-4H-pyrrolo[1,2-a][1,4]benzodiazepines (2) has been prepared with 2-phthalimidomethylfurans (12) and 1-phthalimidoalkane-2,5-diones (15) or 2,5-dimethoxy-2-phthalimidomethyltetrahydrofurans (16) as the key intermediates and subsequently evaluated for CNS activity. The structure-activity data generated indicate that, in general, introduction of the methyl and/or ethyl group(s) in the pyrrole ring and a chlorine atom at the ortho position of the 6-phenyl group increases the activity and that substitution of the above chlorine atom for a fluorine atom decreases the activity. 8-Chloro-6-(2-chlorophenyl)-1,3-dimethyl-4H-pyrrolo[,2-a][1,4]benzodiazepine (2p), the most potent among the compounds synthesized, was equipotent in taming and sedative activities to diazepam. The acute LD50 of 2p in mice was larger than 3000 mg/kg po.

A novel method of conjugation of daunomycin with antibody with a poly-L-glutamic acid derivative as intermediate drug carrier. An anti-alpha-fetoprotein antibody-daunomycin conjugate.

In studies on antitumor antibody-cytotoxic drug conjugates as potential antitumor agents with improved tumor specificity, daunomycin (DM) was first linked to a poly-L-glutamic acid (PLGA) derivative having a single masked thiol group. At the thiol group, DM-linked PLGA was bound to horse anti-rat alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) antibody. The anti-AFP antibody-PLGA-DM conjugate (anti-AFP conjugate, DM/PLGA/Ig molar binding ratio, 7.5/1.2/1.0) retained most of the antigen-binding activity of the parent antibody and was more potent than either unconjugated DM, a conjugate similarity prepared with normal horse immunoglobulin (normal conjugate), or an unconjugated mixture of anti-AFP antibody and DM in an in vitro cytotoxicity assay against the AFP-producing rat ascites hepatoma cell line AH66. Anti-AFP conjugate tended to be less cytotoxic than DM against the AFP-nonproducing rat ascites hepatoma AH272 cells, and in this case there was no difference between the cytotoxicities of anti-AFP conjugate and of normal conjugate.

Synthesis and immunological activity of 5,6,6a,8,9,11a-hexahydronaphth[1',2':4,5]imidazo[2,1-b]thiazoles and 5,6,6a,9,10,11a-hexahydroanaphth[2',1':4,5]imidazo[2,1-b]thiazoles.

A series of 5,6,6a,8,9,11a-hexahydroanaphth[1',2':4,5]imidazo[2,q-b]thiazoles (17 and 20) and 5,6,6a,9,10,11a-hexahydronaphth[2',1':4,5]imidazo[2,1-b]thiazoles has been synthesized with cis- and/or trans-1,2-diamino-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalenes as the key intermediates and subsequently evaluated for immunological activity (effects on antibody formation and delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction). Among the compounds tested trans-5,6,6a,8,9,11a-hexahydronaphth[1',2':4,5]imidazo[2,1-b]thiazole (trans-17a) and (+/-)-5,6,6a beta,8,9,11a alpha-hexahydro-8 beta-hydroxy-9 beta-methyl-8 alpha-phenylnaphth[1',2':4,5]imidazo[2,1-b]thiazole (20a) showed the largest immunological activity in mice with a magnitude comparable to that of levamisole and were found to be considerably less toxic than levamisole in acute toxicological study. The structures of 18a and 20a were determined by X-ray crystallography.

Mutual interactions among cholinergic, noradrenergic and serotonergic neurons studied by ionophoresis of these transmitters in rat brainstem nuclei.

In urethane-anesthetized rats, single neuronal activity was recorded in or around the central gray of the caudal mesencephalon to rostral pons with multibarrel microelectrodes for ionophoretic application of acetylcholine, noradrenaline and serotonin. Neurons were classified by spike shape into broad-spike and brief-spike neurons. In the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus, locus coeruleus or dorsal raphe, broad-spike neurons, marked by Pontamine Sky Blue and discriminated in sections processed for histochemistry of reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate diaphorase or Nissl staining, were presumed to be cholinergic, noradrenergic or serotonergic, respectively. The majority of these neurons were inhibited through autoreceptors, except some laterodorsal tegmental neurons which might not be furnished by autoreceptors. Noradrenaline and serotonin inhibited more than two-thirds of the laterodorsal tegmental neurons tested, while a few neurons were excited by noradrenaline. Though effects of noradrenaline on dorsal raphe neurons and those of serotonin on locus coeruleus neurons were not clear in many neurons tested, neurons affected in these examinations (30%) were all inhibited clearly and no excitatory effect was observed. Acetylcholine exerted inhibition on about one-half of dorsal raphe neurons, while effects of acetylcholine on locus coeruleus neurons were the only case in the present study in which excitation was the major effect, though more than a half of locus coeruleus neurons were not sensitive to this drug. Thus, in this study some new data on the pharmacological properties of the cholinergic laterodorsal tegmental neurons were obtained. In addition, mutual interactions between brainstem cholinergic, noradrenergic and serotonergic neurons were assayed by comparing the pharmacological properties of these neurons tested with a uniform procedure. The interactions between these diffuse projection neurons may be involved in neural mechanisms controlling vigilance, wakefulness and/or sleep.

Sensory responsiveness of "broad-spike" neurons in the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus, locus coeruleus and dorsal raphe of awake rats: implications for cholinergic and monoaminergic neuron-specific responses.

Although cholinergic neurons in the laterodorsal and pedunculopontine tegmental nuclei have been shown to have a pivotal role in neural mechanisms of paradoxical sleep, their function during wakefulness is less understood. To examine the latter, we have recorded from "broad-spike neurons", which were distinguished by their long spike duration, in the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus of undrugged, head-restrained rats, and examined their response properties to sensory stimuli such as light touch to the tail, air puff to the face, 2 kHz pure tone and flashes of light. Broad-spike neurons from the locus coeruleus and dorsal raphe nucleus were studied for comparison; these neurons have been demonstrated to be noradrenergic and serotonergic, respectively. The broad-spike neurons in the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus have also been suggested to be cholinergic. There were two kinds of responses: (1) a simple increase or decrease in firing, reflecting an elevated level of vigilance; and (2) a phasic response composed of a single spike or brief, high frequency burst, usually diminishing or disappearing upon repetition of the stimulus. When two or more types of stimuli were effective in a neuron, they evoked responses of the same quality. Most of the dorsal raphe neurons displayed only the simple increase of firing, whereas the locus coeruleus neurons gave a phasic response with rather weak attenuation upon repetition. Compared with these, the laterodorsal tegmental neurons were heterogeneous: about one-quarter showing only a simple change of firing (half increasing, half decreasing); and two-thirds displaying phasic responses. The latter response of many neurons attenuated strongly upon repetition. The laterodorsal tegmental neurons were classified into several groups according to their spontaneous firing behavior during sleep and wakefulness, but every neuron in a group did not show the same type of response. For example, some of the neurons which were most active during paradoxical sleep and essentially silent during wakefulness decreased or stopped firing upon sensory stimulation, while others in this group had strong phasic responses. These results suggest that putative cholinergic neurons in the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus have heterogenous properties not only with respect to their spontaneous activity during sleep and wakefulness but also with respect to their response to sensory stimulation. Some of these neurons may function to induce a global attentive state in response to a novel stimulus.

Effects of locus coeruleus stimulation on neuronal activities of dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus and perigeniculate reticular nucleus of the rat.

In rats anesthetized with urethane, a stimulating electrode was introduced to the locus coeruleus by observing the antidromic field response to single shock stimulation of the dorsal pathway of noradrenergic axons. Effects of locus coeruleus stimulation were studied on activities of relay neurons and intrinsic interneurons of the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus and on those of neurons in the perigeniculate reticular nucleus. The intrinsic interneurons and the perigeniculate reticular neurons are believed to exert inhibition upon the relay neurons. The relay neurons were activated by repetitive stimulation of locus coeruleus; spontaneous discharges were increased in rate and the threshold of response to single shock stimulation of the optic nerve was lowered. The activation was rarely seen in rats pretreated with alpha-methyl-p-tyrosine. Iontophoretic application of phentolamine, an alpha-blocker, effectively antagonized the activation, whereas an iontophoretic beta-blocker and cholinergic blockers were virtually ineffective. The activation of the relay neurons was suggested to be due to a direct action of noradrenaline, released by locus coeruleus stimulation. Locus coeruleus stimulation inhibited the interneurons and activated the perigeniculate reticular neurons; spontaneous or light-evoked discharges were suppressed in the interneurons and tonic discharges were elicited in the perigeniculate reticular neurons. These effects of locus coeruleus stimulation were mimicked by noradrenaline applied iontophoretically. Activation of the perigeniculate reticular neurons was antagonized by an iontophoretic alpha-blocker but not by a beta-blocker. Two special features emerge from the present results: (1) the locus coeruleus exerts different effects upon the two neuronal constituents of the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus, excitation of the relay neurons and inhibition of the intrinsic interneurons; (2) a suggestion previously advocated that locus-coeruleus-induced excitation of the lateral geniculate relay neurons would be due to inhibition of inhibitory neurons (disinhibition) does not hold true, at least with respect to the perigeniculate reticular neurons; the latter neurons have been proved to exert a powerful inhibition upon the geniculate relay neurons and they are excited by stimulation of the locus coeruleus.

State-dependent activity of neurons in the perifornical hypothalamic area during sleep and waking.

Neurons containing orexins are located in the perifornical hypothalamic area and are considered to have a role in sleep-wake regulation. To examine how this area is involved in the regulation of sleep and wakefulness, we recorded neuronal activity in undrugged, head-restrained rats across sleep-waking cycles. Recordings were made in the perifornical hypothalamic area where orexin-immunoreactive neurons are distributed (PFH), and in the area dorsal to the PFH, including the zona incerta and subincertal nucleus (collectively referred to as ZI). The 40 neurons recorded from in the PFH were divided into five groups: (1) neurons most active during paradoxical sleep (PS, n=14, 35%), (2) neurons active during both waking (W) and PS (n=12, 30%), (3) neurons most active during W (n=7, 18%), (4) neurons most active during slow-wave sleep (SWS, n=3, 7.5%), and (5) neurons whose activity had no correlation with sleep-waking states (n=4, 10%). Of 30 neurons recorded from in the ZI, the corresponding numbers were 13 (43%), seven (23%), six (20%), three (10%), and one (3.3%). In both areas, neuronal activity fluctuated more during PS than during W. Waking-specific neurons (group 3) in the PFH generated action potentials with longer durations than those produced by other types of neurons. About half of the neurons in the PFH that were classified in groups 1, 2, and 3 increased their firing rate after the transition from one state to another, while higher percentages of neurons of groups 1 and 2 in the ZI than those in the PFH increased their firing rate prior to the state shift from SWS to PS. In these ZI neurons, however, the firing rate varied considerably at the state shift. These results suggest that the PFH and ZI are involved in the regulation of PS or W, especially the regulation of phasic events during PS or the maintenance of W. The ZI appears to be more closely involved than the PFH in the induction of PS or some phasic phenomena associated with PS.

Acute administration of phencyclidine induces tonic activation of medial prefrontal cortex neurons in freely moving rats.

Recent studies have reported that acute administration of the psychotomimetic drug phencyclidine results in considerable increases in the amounts of both extracellular glutamate and dopamine in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). However, the effect of phencyclidine on the firing activity of mPFC neurons remains unknown. Here, we report the first data on phencyclidine-induced activation of mPFC neurons in freely moving rats. Unanesthetized rats received an intraperitoneal injection of either phencyclidine (5 mg/kg) or physiological saline (0.5 ml/kg) in order to investigate the impulse activity of mPFC neurons and behavioral activity. The phencyclidine injection induced a remarkable increase (two-fold or more) in the spontaneous discharge rate of the majority of mPFC neurons (20/23), and this increase lasted for more than 70 min. In addition, a considerable augmentation of behavioral activity was observed that nearly paralleled that of the mPFC neuronal activation. In contrast, microiontophoretically applied phencyclidine exerted little influence on the spontaneous firing activity of most mPFC neurons (25/29) in anesthetized rats, although systemically applied phencyclidine produced activation of mPFC neurons even under general anesthesia. These results suggest that the behavioral abnormalities induced by acute administration of phencyclidine may be caused by hyperactivation of mPFC neurons, and that this hyperactivation is elicited through excitatory inputs from brain regions outside the mPFC.

In vivo electrophysiological distinction of histochemically-identified cholinergic neurons using extracellular recording and labelling in rat laterodorsal tegmental nucleus.

From indirect evidence we have proposed that cholinergic versus non-cholinergic neurons in the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus can be distinguished with the duration of their extracellularly recorded action potentials, "broad" spikes for the former, "brief" for the latter. To test this assumption more directly, we labelled single neurons recorded extracellularly in and around the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus with biocytin or neurobiotin, and processed the sections with reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-diaphorase, a proven marker for cholinergic neurons in the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus. Biocytin or neurobiotin which was deposited at the site of recording was incorporated into single neurons. Among 171 trials (91 for broad-spike and 80 for brief-spike neurons), marking was successful in 68 cases (29 for broad-spike and 39 for brief-spike neurons). Almost all (21/22) of the broad-spike neurons located within the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus were positive for reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-diaphorase staining, i.e. they were cholinergic, while all of the brief-spike neurons in and outside of the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus lacked the diaphorase activity, and were thus non-cholinergic. The present study shows that, after extracellular labelling of single neurons by biocytin or neurobiotin, cholinergic neurons in the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus are confidently distinguished from non-cholinergic ones in the corresponding area with their spike shapes. It is also shown that the cholinergic neurons distinguished by this criterion are characterized by their tonic firing at slightly lower rate and larger cell size than the brief-spike non-cholinergic ones.

Possible release of nitric oxide from cholinergic axons in the thalamus by stimulation of the rat laterodorsal tegmental nucleus as measured with voltammetry.

By means of the differential direct current voltammetry technique with carbon fiber electrodes in urethane-anesthetized rats, we monitored nitric oxide (NO) concentrations in the thalamus in the basal condition and following electrical stimulation of the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus (LDT), whose neurons have the strongest activity of NADPH-diaphorase, or NO synthase, together with acetylcholine. NO levels, measured as the height of the peak at +970-1000 mV in the voltammetry (NO was soon oxidized in vivo to be detected at the voltage of this peak, so that NO levels in this report are, in the strict sense, levels of the oxidized metabolites reflecting very possibly those of NO in physiological conditions; see Section 2, Methods), increased just after repetitive stimulation of the LDT. Stimulation of the surrounding areas or the cerebellum produced virtually no change in NO levels. An intravenous injection of L-nitroarginine methyl ester reduced the basal level of NO, but stimulation of the LDT still increased NO levels, which may be due to very strong activity of NO synthase in the LDT neurons. These results are consistent with the notion that NO can be released from axons of the LDT neurons by their excitation.

ERP development in the rat in the course of learning two-tone discrimination task.

To clarify some neurophysiological aspects of learning, we investigated the relationship between the course of learning and development of ERP and investigated developmental processes of ERPs. Nine male Sprague-Dawley rats were trained for a two-tone discrimination task and rat P3 and N1 component were longitudinally recorded. Both rat P3 and N1 gradually increased with learning only for target tones. An improvement in the proportion of correct responses preceded the increase in ERPs, and the increase in P3 and N1 proceeded almost simultaneously. These findings suggest that multiple kinds of information processing were acquired with learning the two-tone discrimination task. ERP development could be utilized as an index of establishment of learning.

Regulation of regional blood flow in the laterodorsal thalamus by ascending cholinergic nerve fibers from the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus.

The laterodorsal tegmental nucleus (LDT) is the largest aggregation in the brainstem of cholinergic neurons whose axons reach the thalamus as part of a diffuse projection to the forebrain. We measured the regional blood flow in the thalamus by means of laser Doppler flowmetry, and examined whether the blood flow was regulated by the ascending cholinergic nerve fibers originating in the LDT. Experiments were performed on urethane-anesthetized rats whose upper cervical spinal cord was transected to avoid response of systemic blood pressure following LDT stimulation. The ascending cholinergic nerve fibers were excited by electrical or chemical stimulation applied to the LDT. The regional thalamic blood flow increased in response to repetitive electrical stimulation and chemical stimulation with L-glutamate to the LDT. The response, starting several seconds after the onset of electrical stimulation and lasting as long as 1 min, was reduced by i.v. scopolamine, a cholinergic muscarinic receptor antagonist. The results indicate that regional blood flow in the thalamus is increased by excitation of the ascending cholinergic nerve fibers originating in the LDT mainly through the cholinergic muscarinic receptors.

Selective responsiveness of medial prefrontal cortex neurons to the meaningful stimulus with a low probability of occurrence in rats.

Multi-unit neuronal activity was recorded in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) of 13 chronically prepared male rats while they performed a two-tone discrimination task. Tones at 1000 and 2000 Hz were sequentially presented at intervals of 3-6 s. The duration of each tone was 0.8 s. Rats were trained to press a bar within 1.2 s after the cessation of the 1000 Hz tone (target), and not to press the bar when the other tone (non-target) was presented. Intracranial electrical stimulation (ICS) of the medial forebrain bundle was given as a reward immediately after the rats had correctly responded to the target tone. Probability of the target occurrence was either 30% or 70% in different sessions. When the target tone was presented on only 30% of the trials, the mPFC neurons in the majority of rats tested (10/13) exhibited phasic excitation about 100 ms after the onset of the target tone. However, when the target tone occurred on 70% of the trials, mPFC neurons in most of rats (11/13) did not show excitatory responses, and in some of them (5/13) were inhibited. No mPFC neurons exhibited significant responses to the non-target tone, regardless of its probability. These results suggest that the mPFC neurons selectively respond to meaningful events with a low probability of occurrence.

Somatotopic organization in the rat thalamic reticular nucleus.

Mapping experiments were carried out to establish the somatotopic organization of the somatosensory part of the thalamic reticular nucleus (TR) of the rat. Different parts of the body were found to project somatotopically onto the S-TR. The rostral-to-caudal and the dorsal-to-ventral axes in the body parts were transformed into the ventral-to-dorsal and the caudal-to-rostral axes in the S-TR, respectively. The head and face occupied about two thirds of the S-TR, distributing in the ventral half and in the dorsocaudal part. Particularly a large area of the S-TR was devoted to the vibrissae, nose (rhinarium) and lip. The trunk was projected to a small area of the dorsal part. The projections of the hind- and forelimb were mainly in the dorsal part, the former being placed above the latter.

GABA sensitivity of neurons of the visual layer in the rat superior colliculus.

Inhibitory action of iontophoretically applied GABA was examined on neurons in the visual layer of the rat superior colliculus (SC). Spontaneous discharges of all neurons tested were readily abolished by GABA ejected with currents less than 25 nA. In some cells the discharges evoked by near threshold electrical stimulation of the optic nerve or those evoked by a spot of light moving across receptive fields were suppressed by the same dose of GABA as that required to abolish the spontaneous discharge. However, in other cells the evoked discharges were much more resistant to GABA than the spontaneous activity. GABA sensitivity of the evoked activities was examined on various classes of SC cells which were identified by their recording depth, response latency to electrical stimulation of the optic chiasm and other properties. SC cells of the visual layer were classified into 8 types: classes Ia and Ib in the most superficial layer (N3 zone), class II in the thin layer below the N3 (N2 zone) and classes IIIa, IIIb, IVb and IVc in the deepest layer below the N2 (N1 zone). Effects of GABA upon these cell classes are summarized as follows; (1) Ia and IVb cells were readily suppressed by GABA, (2) Ib and II and most of IIIa and IVc cells were GABA-insensitive, and (3) GABA sensitivity varied from cell to cell in classes IIIb and IVa.

Firing of 'possibly' cholinergic neurons in the rat laterodorsal tegmental nucleus during sleep and wakefulness.

To clarify functional roles of mesopontine cholinergic neurons as a component of an activating system, single neuronal activity in the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus (LDT) of undrugged rats, whose head was fixed painlessly, was recorded along with cortical EEG and neck EMG. Activity of some dorsal raphe (DR) neurons was also recorded for comparison. Most of the animals had been sleep-deprived for 24 h. Observation was made only on neurons generating broad spikes, presumed from previous studies to be cholinergic or monoaminergic. The position of recorded neurons was marked by Pontamine sky blue ejected from the glass pipette microelectrode, and was identified on sections processed for NADPH diaphorase histochemistry which specifically stained cholinergic neurons. According to their firing rates during wakefulness (AW), slow-wave sleep (SWS) and paradoxical sleep (PS), 46 broad-spike neurons in the LDT were classified into 4 groups: (1) neurons most active during AW and silent during PS (some of these neurons might be serotonergic rather than cholinergic, as all the 9 neurons in the DR); (2) neurons most active during PS and silent during AW; (3) neurons equally more active during AW and PS than SWS; and (4) others mainly characterized by transiently facilitated activity at awakening and/or onset of PS. Neurons of groups 2 and 3 were the major constituents of the LDT. In most neurons change in firing preceded EEG change, except at awakening from PS. These results suggest that: (1) the LDT is composed of cholinergic neurons with heterogenous characteristics in relation to sleep/wakefulness; and (2) some tegmental cholinergic neurons play a privotal role in induction and maintenance of PS.