Exploring a diverse world of effector domains and amyloid signaling motifs in fungal NLR proteins.

NLR proteins are intracellular receptors constituting a conserved component of the innate immune system of cellular organisms. In fungi, NLRs are characterized by high diversity of architectures and presence of amyloid signaling. Here, we explore the diverse world of effector and signaling domains of fungal NLRs using state-of-the-art bioinformatic methods including MMseqs2 for fast clustering, probabilistic context-free grammars for sequence analysis, and AlphaFold2 deep neural networks for structure prediction. In addition to substantially improving the overall annotation, especially in basidiomycetes, the study identifies novel domains and reveals the structural similarity of MLKL-related HeLo- and Goodbye-like domains forming the most abundant superfamily of fungal NLR effectors. Moreover, compared to previous studies, we found several times more amyloid motif instances, including novel families, and validated aggregating and prion-forming properties of the most abundant of them in vitro and in vivo. Also, through an extensive in silico search, the NLR-associated amyloid signaling was identified in basidiomycetes. The emerging picture highlights similarities and differences in the NLR architectures and amyloid signaling in ascomycetes, basidiomycetes and other branches of life.

Biotin-Containing Third Generation Glucoheptoamidated Polyamidoamine Dendrimer for 5-Aminolevulinic Acid Delivery System.

Polyamidoamine PAMAM dendrimer generation 3 (G3) was modified by attachment of biotin via amide bond and glucoheptoamidated by addition of α-D-glucoheptono-1,4-lacton to obtain a series of conjugates with a variable number of biotin residues. The composition of conjugates was determined by detailed 1-D and 2-D NMR spectroscopy to reveal the number of biotin residues, which were 1, 2, 4, 6, or 8, while the number of glucoheptoamide residues substituted most of the remaining primary amine groups of PAMAM G3. The conjugates were then used as host molecules to encapsulate the 5-aminolevulinic acid. The solubility of 5-aminolevulinic acid increased twice in the presence of the 5-mM guest in water. The interaction between host and guest was accompanied by deprotonation of the carboxylic group of 5-aminolevulinic acid and proton transfer into internal ternary nitrogen atoms of the guest as evidenced by a characteristic chemical shift of resonances in the 1H NMR spectrum of associates. The guest molecules were most likely encapsulated inside inner shell voids of the host. The number of guest molecules depended on the number of biotin residues of the host, which was 15 for non-biotin-containing glucoheptoamidated G3 down to 6 for glucoheptoamidated G3 with 8 biotin residues on the host surface. The encapsulates were not cytotoxic against Caco-2 cells up to 200-µM concentration in the dark. All encapsulates were able to deliver 5-aminolevulinic acid to cells but aqueous encapsulates were more active in this regard. Simultaneously, the reactive oxygen species were detected by staining with H2DCFDA in Caco-2 cells incubated with encapsulates. The amount of PpIX was sufficient for induction of reactive oxygen species upon 30-s illumination with a 655-nm laser beam.

Impact of Liposomal Drug Formulations on the RBCs Shape, Transmembrane Potential, and Mechanical Properties.

Liposomal technologies are used in order to improve the effectiveness of current therapies or to reduce their negative side effects. However, the liposome-erythrocyte interaction during the intravenous administration of liposomal drug formulations may result in changes within the red blood cells (RBCs). In this study, it was shown that phosphatidylcholine-composed liposomal formulations of Photolon, used as a drug model, significantly influences the transmembrane potential, stiffness, as well as the shape of RBCs. These changes caused decreasing the number of stomatocytes and irregular shapes proportion within the cells exposed to liposomes. Thus, the reduction of anisocytosis was observed. Therefore, some nanodrugs in phosphatidylcholine liposomal formulation may have a beneficial effect on the survival time of erythrocytes.

Bacteria Single-Cell and Photosensitizer Interaction Revealed by Quantitative Phase Imaging.

Quantifying changes in bacteria cells in the presence of antibacterial treatment is one of the main challenges facing contemporary medicine; it is a challenge that is relevant for tackling issues pertaining to bacterial biofilm formation that substantially decreases susceptibility to biocidal agents. Three-dimensional label-free imaging and quantitative analysis of bacteria-photosensitizer interactions, crucial for antimicrobial photodynamic therapy, is still limited due to the use of conventional imaging techniques. We present a new method for investigating the alterations in living cells and quantitatively analyzing the process of bacteria photodynamic inactivation. Digital holographic tomography (DHT) was used for in situ examination of the response of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus to the accumulation of the photosensitizers immobilized in the copolymer revealed by the changes in the 3D refractive index distributions of single cells. Obtained results were confirmed by confocal microscopy and statistical analysis. We demonstrated that DHT enables real-time characterization of the subcellular structures, the biophysical processes, and the induced local changes of the intracellular density in a label-free manner and at sub-micrometer spatial resolution.

Profound Nanoscale Structural and Biomechanical Changes in DNA Helix upon Treatment with Anthracycline Drugs.

In our study, we describe the outcomes of the intercalation of different anthracycline antibiotics in double-stranded DNA at the nanoscale and single molecule level. Atomic force microscopy analysis revealed that intercalation results in significant elongation and thinning of dsDNA molecules. Additionally, using optical tweezers, we have shown that intercalation decreases the stiffness of DNA molecules, that results in greater susceptibility of dsDNA to break. Using DNA molecules with different GC/AT ratios, we checked whether anthracycline antibiotics show preference for GC-rich or AT-rich DNA fragments. We found that elongation, decrease in height and decrease in stiffness of dsDNA molecules was highest in GC-rich dsDNA, suggesting the preference of anthracycline antibiotics for GC pairs and GC-rich regions of DNA. This is important because such regions of genomes are enriched in DNA regulatory elements. By using three different anthracycline antibiotics, namely doxorubicin (DOX), epirubicin (EPI) and daunorubicin (DAU), we could compare their detrimental effects on DNA. Despite their analogical structure, anthracyclines differ in their effects on DNA molecules and GC-rich region preference. DOX had the strongest overall effect on the DNA topology, causing the largest elongation and decrease in height. On the other hand, EPI has the lowest preference for GC-rich dsDNA. Moreover, we demonstrated that the nanoscale perturbations in dsDNA topology are reflected by changes in the microscale properties of the cell, as even short exposition to doxorubicin resulted in an increase in nuclei stiffness, which can be due to aberration of the chromatin organization, upon intercalation of doxorubicin molecules.

Mixed-Generation PAMAM G3-G0 Megamer as a Drug Delivery System for Nimesulide: Antitumor Activity of the Conjugate Against Human Squamous Carcinoma and Glioblastoma Cells.

Polyhydroxylated dendrimer was synthesized from poly(amidoamine) (PAMAM) dendrimer generation 3 by addition of glycidol (G3gl). G3gl megamer was further modified by binding PAMAM G0 dendrimers by activation of G3gl with p-nitrophenylchloroformate, followed by the addition of excess PAMAM G0 and purification using dialysis. The maximum G0 binding capacity of G3gl was 12 in the case when G0 was equipped with two covalently attached nimesulide equivalents. Nimesulide (N) was converted into N-(p-nitrophenyl) carbonate derivative and fully characterized using X-ray crystallography and spectral methods. Nimesulide was then attached to G0 via a urea bond to yield G02N. The mixed generation G3gl-G02N megamer was characterized using 1H NMR spectroscopy, and its molecular weight was estimated to be 22.4 kDa. The AFM image of G3gl-G02N deposited on mica demonstrated aggregation of nimesulide-covered megamer. The height of the deposited megamer was 8.5 nm. The megameric conjugate with nimesulide was tested in vitro on three human cell lines: squamous cell carcinoma (SCC-15) and glioblastoma (U-118 MG) overexpressing cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and normal skin fibroblasts (BJ). The conjugate efficiently penetrated into all cells and was more cytotoxic against SCC-15 than against BJ. Moreover, the conjugate produced a strong and selective antiproliferative effect on both cancer cell lines (IC50 < 7.5 µM).

Photoactive Liposomal Formulation of PVP-Conjugated Chlorin e6 for Photodynamic Reduction of Atherosclerotic Plaque.

BACKGROUND: Liposomes serve as delivery systems for biologically active compounds. Existing technologies inefficiently encapsulate large hydrophilic macromolecules, such as PVP-conjugated chlorin e6 (Photolon). This photoactive drug has been widely tested for therapeutic applications, including photodynamic reduction of atherosclerotic plaque. METHODS: A novel formulation of Photolon was produced using "gel hydration technology". Its pharmacokinetics was tested in Sus scrofa f. domestica. Its cellular uptake, cytotoxicity, and ability to induce a phototoxic reaction were demonstrated in J774A.1, RAW264.7 macrophages, and vascular smooth muscle (T/G HA-VSMC) as well as in vascular endothelial (HUVEC) cells. RESULTS: Developed liposomes had an average diameter of 124.7 ± 0.6 nm (polydispersity index (PDI) = 0.055) and contained >80% of Photolon). The half-life of formulation in S. scrofa was 20 min with area under the curve (AUC) equal to 14.7. The formulation was noncytotoxic in vitro and was rapidly (10 min) and efficiently accumulated by macrophages, but not T/G HA-VSMC or HUVEC. The accumulated quantity of photosensitizer was sufficient for induction of phototoxicity in J774A.1, but not in T/G HA-VSMC. CONCLUSIONS: Due to the excellent physical and pharmacokinetic properties and selectivity for macrophages, the novel liposomal formulation of Photolon is a promising therapeutic candidate for use in arteriosclerosis treatment when targeting macrophages but not accompanying vascular tissue is critical for effective and safe therapy.

Antibody CD133 Biofunctionalization of Ammonium Acryloyldimethyltaurate and Vinylpyrrolidone Co-Polymer-Based Coating of the Vascular Implants.

Current vascular stents, such as drug eluting stents (DES), have some serious drawbacks, like in stent restenosis and thrombosis. Therefore, other solutions are sought to overcome these post-implantations complications. These include the strategy of biofunctionalization of the stent surface with antibodies that facilitate adhesion of endothelial cells (ECs) or endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs). Rapid re-endothelialization of the surface minimizes the risk of possible complications. In this study, we proposed ammonium acryloyldimethyltaurate/vinylpyrrolidone co-polymer-based surface (AVC), which was mercaptosilanized in order to expose free thiol groups. The presence of free thiol groups allowed for the covalent attachment of CD133 antibodies by disulfide bridges formation between mercaptosilanized surface and cysteine of the protein molecule thiol groups. Various examinations were performed in order to validate the procedure, including attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) and Fourier transform Raman spectroscopy (FT-Raman), atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). By means of ATR-FTIR spectroscopy presence of the CD133 antibody within coating was confirmed. In vitro studies proved good biocompatibility for blood cells without induction of hemolytic response. Thus, proposed biofunctionalized CD133 antibody AVC surface has shown sufficient stability for adapting as cardiovascular implant coating and biocompatibility. According to conducted in vitro studies, the modified surface can be further tested for applications in various biological systems.

Functionalization with a VEGFR2-binding antibody fragment leads to enhanced endothelialization of a cardiovascular stent in vitro and in vivo.

Rapid endothelialization of cardiovascular stents is critical to prevent major clinical complications such as restenosis. Reconstruction of the native endothelium on the stent surface can be achieved by the capture of endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) or neighboring endothelial cells (ECs) in vivo. In this study, stainless steel cardiovascular stents were functionalized with recombinant scFv antibody fragments specific for vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 (VEGFR2) that is expressed on EPCs and ECs. Anti-VEGFR2 scFvs were expressed in glycosylated form in Escherichia coli and covalently attached to amine-functionalized, titania-coated steel disks and stents. ScFv-coated surfaces exhibited no detectable cytotoxicity to human ECs or erythrocytes in vitro and bound 15 times more VEGFR2-positive human umbilical vein ECs than controls after as little as 3 min. Porcine coronary arteries were successfully stented with scFv-coated stents with no adverse clinical events after 30 days. Endovascular imaging and histology revealed coverage of the anti-VEGFR2 scFv-coated stent with a cell layer after 5 days and the presence of a neointima layer with a minimum thickness of 80 µm after 30 days. Biofunctionalization of cardiovascular stents with endothelial cell-capturing antibody fragments in this manner offers promise in accelerating stent endothelialization in vivo. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part B: Appl Biomater 108B:213-224, 2020.

Functionalized CD133 antibody coated stent surface simultaneously promotes EPCs adhesion and inhibits smooth muscle cell proliferation-A novel approach to prevent in-stent restenosis.

We report a multistep strategy of biochemical surface modifications that resulted in the synthesis of new, effective and biocompatible intravascular implants coating with immobilized anti-CD133 antibodies, that proved to be the most effective in endothelial progenitor cells capture and reduced smooth muscle cells growth. Biomolecules were immobilized on differently functionalized surfaces. The distribution, nanostructural characteristics and intramolecular interactions of anti-CD133 molecules as well as their ability to bind EPCs was evaluated. We also tempted to build a molecular model of the CD133 protein to study antigen-antibody interactions. CD133 protein is expressed in endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs). Absence of preferential interaction site on CD133, but rather a presence of a small binding area, may be the specificity of reconnaissance sequence, thus importantly increasing the probability of CD133 protein binding. After all, regarding our molecular model, we are convinced that specific, and large enough interactions between anti-CD133 coating stent surface and CD133 present on EPCs will reduce risk of restenosis by favoring the endothelial growth. Additionally, the safety study of the vivo performance of modified titania based surface was performed using small animal models. No allergological or toxical local or systemic adverse effects of the developed coatings were noted.

Photoactive Pore Matrix for In Situ Delivery of a Photosensitizer in Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells Selective PDT.

In this study we present the porous silica-based material that can be used for in situ drug delivery, offering effective supply of active compounds regardless its water solubility. To demonstrate usability of this new material, three silica-based materials with different pore size distribution as a matrix for doping with Photolon (Ph) and Protoporphyrin IX (PPIX) photosensitizers, were prepared. These matrices can be used for coating cardiovascular stents used for treatment of the coronary artery disease and enable intravascular photodynamic therapy (PDT), which can modulate the vascular response to injury caused by stent implantation-procedure that should be thought as an alternative for drug eluting stent. The FTIR spectroscopic analysis confirmed that all studied matrices have been successfully functionalized with the target photosensitizers. Atomic force microscopy revealed that resulting photoactive matrices were very smooth, which can limit the implantation damage and reduce the risk of restenosis. No viability loss of human peripheral blood lymphocytes and no erythrocyte hemolysis upon prolonged incubations on matrices indicated good biocompatibility of designed materials. The suitability of photoactive surfaces for PDT was tested in two cell lines relevant to stent implantation: vascular endothelial cells (HUVECs) and vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC). It was demonstrated that 2 h incubation on the silica matrices was sufficient for uptake of the encapsulated photosensitizers. Moreover, the amount of the absorbed photosensitizer was sufficient for induction of a phototoxic reaction as shown by a rise of the reactive oxygen species in photosensitized VSMC. On the other hand, limited reactive oxygen species (ROS) induction in HUVECs in our experimental set up suggests that the proposed method of PDT may be less harmful for the endothelial cells and may decrease a risk of the restenosis. Presented data clearly demonstrate that porous silica-based matrices are capable of in situ delivery of photosensitizer for PDT of VSMC.

Alterations of biomechanics in cancer and normal cells induced by doxorubicin.

Mechanical properties of biological structures play an important role in regulating cellular activities and are critical for understanding metabolic processes in cancerous cells and the effects of drugs. For some cancers, such as acute myeloid leukaemia, chemotherapy is one of preferential methods. However, due to the lack of selectivity to cancer cells, cytostatic agents cause toxicity to normal tissues. Here, we study the effect of doxorubicin (DOX) on the mechanical properties of DNA molecules, leukemic blast cells and erythrocytes, using optical tweezers. In addition, we controlled the subcellular distribution of the drug by confocal microscopy. Our results indicated that doxorubicin affects mechanical properties of cellular structures. In all cases the drug reduced mechanical strength of examined objects. For the leukemic cells the drug subcellular distribution was predominantly nuclear with some particulate cytoplasmic fluorescence. In erythrocytes, doxorubicin showed fluorescence mainly in cytoplasm and plasma membrane. The lowering of blast cells stiffness may be due to the interaction of doxorubicin with nuclear structures, especially with nucleic acids, as our studies with DNA confirmed. In addition, it is known that DOX inhibits the polymerization of actin and thus cytoskeletal modification may also be important in reducing of cell mechanical strength. In the case of erythrocytes - the non-nucleated cells, a significant effect on the decrease of cell stiffness, besides the cytoskeleton, may have the interaction of the drug with the cell membrane. Experiments with model phospholipid membranes confirmed that observed increase in cell elasticity originates, among other things, from the drug incorporation in the lipid membrane itself. The lowering of mechanical strength of leukemic cells may have an significant impact on the effectiveness of chemotherapy. However, the fact that doxorubicin interacts not only with proliferating cancer cells, but also with the health ones may explains the high toxicity of the drug at the therapeutic concentrations. Our observations also suggest that chemotherapy with doxorubicin may decrease the risk of vascular complications in acute leukemia, due to increasing the cell elasticity.

Biocompatible Carbon-Based Coating as Potential Endovascular Material for Stent Surface.

Stainless steel 316L is a material commonly used in cardiovascular medicine. Despite the various methods applied in stent production, the rates of in-stent restenosis and thrombosis remain high. In this study graphene was used to coat the surface of 316L substrate for enhanced bio- and hemocompatibility of the substrate. The presence of graphene layers applied to the substrate was investigated using cutting-edge imaging technology: energy-filtered low-voltage FE-SEM approach, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Raman spectroscopy, and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The potential of G-316L surface to influence endothelial cells phenotype and endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndoMT) has been determined. Our results show that the bio- and hemocompatible properties of graphene coatings along with known radial force of 316L make G-316L a promising candidate for intracoronary implants.

The cellular internalization of liposome encapsulated protoporphyrin IX by HeLa cells.

The proper lipid composition of liposomes designed to carry drugs determines their surface properties ensuring their accumulation within selected tissue. The electrostatic potential and surface topology of liposomes affect the internalization by single cells. The high-resolution imaging of cancer cells and the distribution of protoporphyrin-loaded liposomes within the cytoplasm and its dependence on the liposome surface properties are presented. In the paper, HeLa cells were used to investigate the uptake of porphyrin-loaded liposomes and liposomes alone by means of confocal and differential interference contrast microscopies. The effect of liposomes surface electrostatic potential and surface topology on their intracellular distribution was evaluated. The time evolution of the intracellular distribution of liposomes labelled with Rhodamine-PE was examined on HeLa cells. These studies allow for the identification of the liposome lipid composition so the efficient delivery of the active substance to cancer cells will be achieved. The obtained results showed that neutral PC-liposomes are the most efficiently internalized by HeLa cells. Moreover, results showed that properties of liposomes affect not only the internalization efficiency of the photosensitizer but also its distribution within the cells, as revealed by colocalization measurements.

Irreversible or reversible self-assembly procedures yield robust zirconium (IV)-porpyrinphosphonate cones or microm-long fibers of monomolecular thickness.

Stepwise, irreversible self-assembly of porphyrinphosphonates by zirconium(IV) produces cones of 20 nm height and similar widths. Side-on growth cannot be prevented. Reversible fiber growth without metal ions gave micrometer long fibers on mica of 2 nm width, because charge repulsion allowed only for end-on growth.

The elongation rate of RNA polymerase determines the fate of transcribed nucleosomes.

Upon transcription, histones can either detach from DNA or transfer behind the polymerase through a process believed to involve template looping. The details governing nucleosomal fate during transcription are not well understood. Our atomic force microscopy images of yeast RNA polymerase II-nucleosome complexes confirm the presence of looped transcriptional intermediates and provide mechanistic insight into the histone-transfer process through the distribution of transcribed nucleosome positions. Notably, we find that a fraction of the transcribed nucleosomes are remodeled to hexasomes, and this fraction depends on the transcription elongation rate. A simple model involving the kinetic competition between transcription elongation, histone transfer and histone-histone dissociation quantitatively explains our observations and unifies them with results obtained from other polymerases. Factors affecting the relative magnitude of these processes provide the physical basis for nucleosomal fate during transcription and, therefore, for the regulation of gene expression.

In situ photoexcitation of silver-doped titania nanopowders for activity against bacteria and yeasts.

Photocatalytic and in situ microbial activity of the amorphous and annealed states of Ag-doped and un-doped titania were examined. Studies on their structure, morphology, composition, and the photo-absorption characteristics of these materials were performed. These results were correlated with the photocatalytic and microbial activity against methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus K324 (MRSA), methicillin susceptible S. aureus ATCC 25923 (MSSA), Escherichia coli PA 170, and yeasts Candida albicans ATCC 90028. The annealed powders containing anatase form of titania exhibited relatively higher photocatalytic activity,corresponding to activity against MRSA,when exposed to UV-A radiation. In comparison, amorphous powders exhibited low photoactivity and showed poor antibacterial performance against MRSA under UV-A exposure. Doping of amorphous titania with Ag resulted in an anti-MRSA effect without exposure to UV radiation. In the Ag-doped crystalline anatase samples, the size of Ag primary nanocrystallites increased, which led to the decrease in the surface concentration of Ag and detriment anti-MRSA activity.

Synthesis of linear polyamines with different amine spacings and their ability to form dsDNA/siRNA complexes suitable for transfection.

In this paper we report on the synthesis of diversified linear polyamine architectures with different chain lengths and compositions and their interaction with phosphate groups of DNA/siRNA. The polyplex formation between model nucleotide (dsDNA) and these linear polyamines has been determined at different nitrogen to phosphorus (N/P) ratios using small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) techniques. AFM images showed that while linear poly(ethylene imine) (PEI)/DNA complex results in bigger spherical aggregates, poly(propylene imine)s forms torroid and cigar shaped structures upon complexation with DNA. The poly(butylene imine)s (LPBI)s form compact and soluble DNA complexes with a radii range of R(g) = 15-30 nm. Among the studied linear polyamines, the LPBIs did show the best transfection efficiency.

Hydrophobic and hydrophilic yoctowells as receptors in water.

Hydrophilic yoctowells (volume = 10-24 L) with OEG walls are introduced, which entrap tobramycin, a tetraamino trisaccharide, in water with a binding constant of 107 M-1 but do not interact with cellobiose. This is in contrast to corresponding hydrophobic yoctowells, which kinetically immobilize cellobiose in water, but do not entrap tobramycin.

Scanning force microscopy of upright-standing, isolated calixarene-porphyrin heterodimers.

A water soluble calixarene[4]arene 1 with four guanidinium substituents on the upper rim and propyl groups below was anchored in the propylamino coating of smooth silica particles, and a tricarboxylate-tripod porphyrin 2 of 2 nm height was attached to these cationic islands. The molecular complex with a height of 3 nm was unequivocally detected on the particles' surface by atomic force microscopy in the tapping mode. Although deposits of 1 (height: 1 nm) and 2 (height: 2 nm) were also evident on the smooth silica particles, 3 nm seems to be the minimal height to identify single objects. The soft surface of the particles not only allowed tight attachment of molecular edge amphiphiles by the hydrophobic effect but also immobilized the particles on the mica surface by amine-silicate interactions.