Data-driven MRI analysis reveals fitness-related functional change in default mode network and cognition following an exercise intervention.

Previous research has indicated that cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) is structurally and functionally neuroprotective in older adults. However, questions remain regarding the mechanistic role of CRF on cognitive and brain health. The purposes of this study were to investigate if higher pre-intervention CRF was associated with greater change in functional brain connectivity during an exercise intervention and to determine if the magnitude of change in connectivity was related to better post-intervention cognitive performance. The sample included low-active older adults (n = 139) who completed a 6-month exercise intervention and underwent neuropsychological testing, functional neuroimaging, and CRF testing before and after the intervention. A data-driven multi-voxel pattern analysis was performed on resting-state MRI scans to determine changes in whole-brain patterns of connectivity from pre- to post-intervention as a function of pre-intervention CRF. Results revealed a positive correlation between pre-intervention CRF and changes in functional connectivity in the precentral gyrus. Using the precentral gyrus as a seed, analyses indicated that CRF-related connectivity changes within the precentral gyrus were derived from increased correlation strength within clusters located in the Dorsal Attention Network (DAN) and increased anti-correlation strength within clusters located in the Default Mode Network (DMN). Exploratory analysis demonstrated that connectivity change between the precentral gyrus seed and DMN clusters were associated with improved post-intervention performance on perceptual speed tasks. These findings suggest that in a sample of low-active and mostly lower-fit older adults, even subtle individual differences in CRF may influence the relationship between functional connectivity and aspects of cognition following a 6-month exercise intervention.

The effects of an exercise intervention on neuroelectric activity and executive function in children with overweight/obesity: The ActiveBrains randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether a 20-week aerobic and resistance exercise program induces changes in brain current density underlying working memory and inhibitory control in children with overweight/obesity. METHODS: A total of 67 children (10.00 ± 1.10 years) were randomized into an exercise or control group. Electroencephalography (EEG)-based current density (µA/mm2 ) was estimated using standardized low-resolution brain electromagnetic tomography (sLORETA) during a working memory task (Delayed non-matched-to-sample task, DNMS) and inhibitory control task (Modified flanker task, MFT). In DNMS, participants had to memorize four stimuli (Pokemons) and then select between two of them, one of which had not been previously shown. In MFT, participants had to indicate whether the centered cow (i.e., target) of five faced the right or left. RESULTS: The exercise group had significantly greater increases in brain activation in comparison with the control group during the encoding phase of DNMS, particularly during retention of second stimuli in temporal and frontal areas (peak t = from 3.4 to 3.8, cluster size [k] = from 11 to 39), during the retention of the third stimuli in frontal areas (peak t = from 3.7 to 3.9, k = from 15 to 26), and during the retention of the fourth stimuli in temporal and occipital areas (peak t = from 2.7 to 4.3, k = from 13 to 101). In MFT, the exercise group presented a lower current density change in the middle frontal gyrus (peak t = -4.1, k = 5). No significant change was observed between groups for behavioral performance (p ≥ 0.05). CONCLUSION: A 20-week exercise program modulates brain activity which might provide a positive influence on working memory and inhibitory control in children with overweight/obesity.

Dynamics of alpha suppression index both modality specific and general attention processes.

EEG alpha power varies under many circumstances requiring visual attention. However, mounting evidence indicates that alpha may not only serve visual processing, but also the processing of stimuli presented in other sensory modalities, including hearing. We previously showed that alpha dynamics during an auditory task vary as a function of competition from the visual modality (Clements et al., 2022) suggesting that alpha may be engaged in multimodal processing. Here we assessed the impact of allocating attention to the visual or auditory modality on alpha dynamics at parietal and occipital electrodes, during the preparatory period of a cued-conflict task. In this task, bimodal precues indicated the modality (vision, hearing) relevant to a subsequent reaction stimulus, allowing us to assess alpha during modality-specific preparation and while switching between modalities. Alpha suppression following the precue occurred in all conditions, indicating that it may reflect general preparatory mechanisms. However, we observed a switch effect when preparing to attend to the auditory modality, in which greater alpha suppression was elicited when switching to the auditory modality compared to repeating. No switch effect was evident when preparing to attend to visual information (although robust suppression did occur in both conditions). In addition, waning alpha suppression preceded error trials, irrespective of sensory modality. These findings indicate that alpha can be used to monitor the level of preparatory attention to process both visual and auditory information, and support the emerging view that alpha band activity may index a general attention control mechanism used across modalities.

No Effect of Calorie Restriction or Dietary Patterns on Spatial Working Memory During a 2-Year Intervention: A Secondary Analysis of the CALERIE Trial.

BACKGROUND: The effect of calorie restriction (CR) on cognitive function is not well understood, and the impact of the dietary patterns consumed during CR has not been investigated. OBJECTIVES: We analyzed the combined association of CR and dietary quality with spatial working memory (SWM) in healthy adults without obesity. METHODS: The Comprehensive Assessment of Long-term Effects of Reducing Intake of Energy (CALERIE) trial was a 2-y, multisite clinical trial. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00427193. Participants were randomized to a 25% reduction in EI (n = 143) or an ad libitum Control (n = 76). The Dietary Inflammatory Index (DII) and the Healthy Eating Index (HEI) captured dietary quality, with a lower DII and higher HEI score indicating a healthier diet. The Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery battery was used to assess SWM. Longitudinal associations between each dietary pattern index and SWM for CR and Control were assessed by multivariable negative binomial models that included baseline, 12-mo, and 24-mo visits. RESULTS: Participants were aged 38.1 ± 7.2 y with a BMI of 25.1 ± 1.7 kg/m2. A total of 70% of the participants were female. Baseline mean DII and HEI scores were -0.15 (range: -3.77, 4.21) and 59.1 (24.1, 91.0) and did not differ between groups. Improvements in DII and HEI were significantly different between CR and Control over 2 y (both P-interaction = 0.001). In longitudinal analyses, there was no association of either index with SWM. Furthermore, though within-group improvements in SWM were observed at 12 mo, there was no statistically significant difference between CR (SWM errors: 9.0; 95% CI: 1.9, 41.6) and Control (11.7; 95% CI: 2.6, 53.5; P > 0.99), holding DII constant. Comparable results were observed at 24 mo and for the HEI. CONCLUSIONS: Dietary quality during CR was not associated with measures of SWM over 2 y in healthy adults without obesity. These results suggest that, in healthy populations, dietary patterns and CR may have a limited impact on working memory. Further research is required to understand the concurrent effect of these nutritional strategies.

Macular Pigment Optical Density and Skin Carotenoids in a Childhood Sample.

BACKGROUND: Carotenoids are plant pigments with light filtering and antioxidant properties that deposit in human tissues, including retina and skin. Descriptive characteristics and covariates of carotenoid status in macula and skin have been examined in adults; however, similar studies in children are limited. Thus, this study aimed to delineate how factors of age, sex, race, weight status, and dietary carotenoid intake relate to macular and skin carotenoids in children. METHODS: Children (7-13 y, N = 375) completed heterochromatic flicker photometry to assess macular pigment optical density (MPOD). Participants underwent anthropometrics to measure weight status (BMI percentile [BMI%]), and parent/guardian provided demographic information. Subsample data were available for skin carotenoids (N = 181), assessed using reflection spectroscopy, and dietary carotenoids (N = 101) using the Block Food Frequency Questionnaire. Relationships between skin and macular carotenoids were assessed using partial Pearson's correlations controlling for age, sex, race, and BMI%. Relationships between dietary carotenoids and macular and skin carotenoids were assessed using stepwise linear regression including age, sex, race, and BMI% in the model. RESULTS: Mean MPOD was 0.56 ± 0.22 and skin carotenoid score was 282 ± 94.6. There was no significant correlation between MPOD and skin carotenoids (r = 0.02, P = 0.76). BMI% was negatively associated with skin (stdß = -0.42, P < 0.001), but not macular carotenoids (stdß = -0.04, P = 0.70). Neither MPOD nor skin carotenoids were associated with age, sex, or race (all P > 0.10). MPOD was positively associated with energy-adjusted reported lutein + zeaxanthin intake (stdß = 0.27, P = 0.01). Skin carotenoids were positively associated with energy-adjusted reported carotenoid intake (stdß = 0.26, P = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: The mean MPOD values in children were higher than what has been reported in adult populations. Previous studies in adult samples report an average MPOD of 0.21. Although macular and skin carotenoids were not related, they were associated with dietary carotenoids relevant to the respective tissues; however, skin carotenoids may be more susceptible negative influence from higher weight status.

Medication cost-reducing behaviors in older adults with atrial fibrillation: The SAGE-AF study.

BACKGROUND: As patient prices for many medications have risen steeply in the United States, patients may engage in cost-reducing behaviors (CRBs) such as asking for generic medications or purchasing medication from the Internet. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study is to describe patterns of CRB, cost-related medication nonadherence, and spending less on basic needs to afford medications among older adults with atrial fibrillation (AF) and examine participant characteristics associated with CRB. METHODS: Data were from a prospective cohort study of older adults at least 65 years with AF and a high stroke risk (CHA2DS2VASc ≥ 2). CRB, cost-related medication nonadherence, and spending less on basic needs to afford medications were evaluated using validated measures. Chi-square and t tests were used to evaluate differences in characteristics across CRB, and statistically significant characteristics (P < 0.05) were entered into a multivariable logistic regression to examine factors associated with CRB. RESULTS: Among participants (N = 1224; mean age 76 years; 49% female), 69% reported engaging in CRB, 4% reported cost-related medication nonadherence, and 6% reported spending less on basic needs. Participants who were cognitively impaired (adjusted odds ratio 0.69 [95% CI 0.52-0.91]) and those who did not identify as non-Hispanic white (0.66 [0.46-0.95]) were less likely to engage in CRB. Participants who were married (1.88 [1.30-2.72]), had a household income of $20,000-$49,999 (1.52 [1.02-2.27]), had Medicare insurance (1.38 [1.04-1.83]), and had 4-6 comorbidities (1.43 [1.01-2.01]) had significantly higher odds of engaging in CRB. CONCLUSION: Although CRBs were common among older adults with AF, few reported cost-related medication nonadherence and spending less on basic needs. Patients with cognitive impairment may benefit from pharmacist intervention to provide support in CRB and patient assistance programs.

Companion: A Pilot Randomized Clinical Trial to Test an Integrated Two-Way Communication and Near-Real-Time Sensing System for Detecting and Modifying Daily Inactivity among Adults >60 Years-Design and Protocol.

Supervised personal training is most effective in improving the health effects of exercise in older adults. Yet, low frequency (60 min, 1-3 sessions/week) of trainer contact limits influence on behavior change outside sessions. Strategies to extend the effect of trainer contact outside of supervision and that integrate meaningful and intelligent two-way communication to provide complex and interactive problem solving may motivate older adults to "move more and sit less" and sustain positive behaviors to further improve health. This paper describes the experimental protocol of a 16-week pilot RCT (N = 46) that tests the impact of supplementing supervised exercise (i.e., control) with a technology-based behavior-aware text-based virtual "Companion" that integrates a human-in-the-loop approach with wirelessly transmitted sensor-based activity measurement to deliver behavior change strategies using socially engaging, contextually salient, and tailored text message conversations in near-real-time. Primary outcomes are total-daily and patterns of habitual physical behaviors after 16 and 24 weeks. Exploratory analyses aim to understand Companion's longitudinal behavior effects, its user engagement and relationship to behavior, and changes in cardiometabolic and cognitive outcomes. Our findings may allow the development of a more scalable hybrid AI Companion to impact the ever-growing public health epidemic of sedentariness contributing to poor health outcomes, reduced quality of life, and early death.

White matter plasticity in healthy older adults: The effects of aerobic exercise.

White matter deterioration is associated with cognitive impairment in healthy aging and Alzheimer's disease. It is critical to identify interventions that can slow down white matter deterioration. So far, clinical trials have failed to demonstrate the benefits of aerobic exercise on the adult white matter using diffusion Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Here, we report the effects of a 6-month aerobic walking and dance interventions (clinical trial NCT01472744) on white matter integrity in healthy older adults (n = 180, 60-79 years) measured by changes in the ratio of calibrated T1- to T2-weighted images (T1w/T2w). Specifically, the aerobic walking and social dance interventions resulted in positive changes in the T1w/T2w signal in late-myelinating regions, as compared to widespread decreases in the T1w/T2w signal in the active control. Notably, in the aerobic walking group, positive change in the T1w/T2w signal correlated with improved episodic memory performance. Lastly, intervention-induced increases in cardiorespiratory fitness did not correlate with change in the T1w/T2w signal. Together, our findings suggest that white matter regions that are vulnerable to aging retain some degree of plasticity that can be induced by aerobic exercise training. In addition, we provided evidence that the T1w/T2w signal may be a useful and broadly accessible measure for studying short-term within-person plasticity and deterioration in the adult human white matter.

Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms in CD36 Are Associated with Macular Pigment among Children.

BACKGROUND: High macular pigment optical density (MPOD) has been associated with improved eye health and better cognitive functions. Genetic variations have been associated with MPOD in adults. However, these associations between genetic variations and MPOD have not been studied in children. OBJECTIVES: This was a secondary analysis of the FK2 (Fitness Improves Thinking in Kids 2) trial (n = 134, 41% male). The aim was to determine differences in MPOD among children (aged 7-9 y) based on genetic variants that either are biologically relevant to lutein (L) and zeaxanthin (Z) accumulation or have been associated with MPOD in adults. METHODS: MPOD was measured using customized heterochromatic flicker photometry via a macular densitometer. DXA was used to assess whole-body and visceral adiposity. DNA was extracted from saliva samples and was genotyped for 26 hypothesis-driven single nucleotide polymorphisms and 75 ancestry-informative markers (AIMs). Habitual diet history was obtained via 3-d food logs completed by parents (n = 88). General linear models were used to compare MPOD between different genotypes. Principal component analysis was performed for the AIMs to account for ethnic heterogeneity. RESULTS: Children carrying ≥1 minor allele on ß-carotene-15,15'-monooxygenase (BCO1)-rs7501331 (T allele) (P = 0.045), cluster of differentiation 36(CD36)-rs1527483 (T allele) (P = 0.038), or CD36-rs3173798 (C allele) (P = 0.001) had significantly lower MPOD (range: 14.1%-26.4%) than those who were homozygotes for the major alleles. MPOD differences based on CD36-rs3173798 genotypes persisted after adjustment for dietary L and Z intake. CONCLUSIONS: The findings indicate that genetic variations of CD36 and BCO1 contribute to MPOD in children. The influence of genetic variation in CD36-rs3173798 persisted after adjusting for variation in dietary intake.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01619826.

Physical fitness, hippocampal functional connectivity and academic performance in children with overweight/obesity: The ActiveBrains project.

OBJECTIVES: Physical fitness is a modifiable factor associated with enhanced brain health during childhood. To our knowledge, the present study is the first to examine: (i) whether physical fitness components (i.e., cardiorespiratory, motor and muscular fitness) are associated with resting state functional connectivity of hippocampal seeds to different cortical regions in children with overweight/obesity, and (ii) whether resting state hippocampal functional connectivity is coupled with better academic performance. PATIENTS AND METHODS: In this cross-sectional study, a total of 99 children with overweight/obesity aged 8-11 years were recruited from Granada, Spain (November 2014 to February 2016). The physical fitness components were assessed following the ALPHA health-related fitness test battery. T1-weighted and resting-state fMRI images were acquired with a 3.0 Tesla Siemens Magnetom Tim Trio system. Academic performance was assessed by the Woodcock-Muñoz standardized test. Hippocampal seed-based procedures with post-hoc regression analyses were performed. RESULTS: In the fully adjusted models, cardiorespiratory fitness was independently associated with greater hippocampal connectivity between anterior hippocampus and frontal regions (ß ranging from 0.423 to 0.424, p < 0.001). Motor fitness was independently associated with diminished hippocampal connectivity between posterior hippocampus and frontal regions (ß ranging from -0.583 to -0.694, p < 0.001). However, muscular fitness was not independently associated with hippocampal functional connectivity. Positive resting state hippocampal functional connectivity was related to better written expression (ß ranging from 0.209 to 0.245; p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Physical fitness components may associate with functional connectivity between hippocampal subregions and frontal regions, independent of hippocampal volume, in children with overweight/obesity. Particularly, cardiorespiratory fitness may enhance anterior hippocampal functional connectivity and motor fitness may diminish posterior hippocampal functional connectivity. In addition, resting state hippocampal functional connectivity may relate to better written expression.

Physical fitness and brain source localization during a working memory task in children with overweight/obesity: The ActiveBrains project.

The present study aims (i) to examine the association of physical fitness components (i.e., cardiorespiratory fitness, speed-agility, and muscular fitness) with brain current source density during working memory; and (ii) to examine whether fitness-related current density was associated to working memory performance and academic achievement. Eighty-five children with overweight/obesity aged 8-11 years participated in this cross-sectional study. Physical fitness components were assessed using the ALPHA test battery. Electroencephalography recordings were performed during a Delayed Non-Match-to-Sample task that assessed working memory. Brain source analysis was carried out using sLORETA to estimate regional current source density differences between high and low (H-L) working memory loads. Academic achievement was measured by the Spanish version of the Woodcock-Johnson III test battery. The main results showed that higher cardiorespiratory fitness was associated with higher H-L current density differences in frontal, limbic, and occipital regions during encoding and maintenance task's phases (ß≥0.412, p ≤ 0.019). A limbic area was further related to better working memory performance (ß=0.267, p = 0.005). During retrieval, higher cardiorespiratory fitness was also associated with higher current density in temporal regions (ß=0.265, p = 0.013), whereas lower muscular fitness was associated with higher current density in frontal regions (ß=-0.261, p = 0.016). Our results suggest that cardiorespiratory fitness, but not speed-agility nor muscular fitness, is positively associated with brain current source density during working memory processes in children with overweight/obesity. Fitness-related current density differences in limbic regions were associated with better working memory.

A pilot feasibility randomized controlled trial adding behavioral counseling to supervised physical activity in prostate cancer survivors: behavior change in prostate cancer survivors trial (BOOST).

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of delivering a supervised physical activity program plus standard exercise counseling (PA + EC) versus a supervised physical activity plus motivationally-enhanced behavioral counseling (PA + BC) in prostate cancer survivors. Secondary outcomes included objectively assessed PA, quality of life, body composition, cardiorespiratory fitness, cognitive functioning, and physical function. Twenty-six prostate cancer survivors were randomized to a 12-week supervised PA program plus standard exercise counseling or a 12-week supervised PA plus behavioral counseling based on the Multi-Process Action Control framework. Feasibility was determined through enrolment rate, measurement completion rate, loss-to-follow-up, adherence to the intervention, adverse events, and program evaluation items assessing burden and satisfaction. Of the 26 prostate cancer survivors enrolled (Mage = 65.6 ± 6.8), 96% completed the intervention. Measurement completion rates for the study measures were 88.5%. Adherence to the supervised PA sessions was 92% (completed 11/12 supervised PA sessions) and 100% (completed 12/12 supervised PA sessions) in the PA + EC and PA + BC group, respectively. Adherence to the home-based PA sessions was 70% (completed 7/10 home-based sessions) and 90% (completed 9/10 home-based sessions) in the PA + EC and PA + BC group, respectively. Overall, prostate cancer survivors were highly satisfied with the intervention components and found it rewarding, useful for research helping others, and useful for them personally. The patterns in the secondary outcomes were consistent with a positive impact of the intervention, favoring the PA + BC group. Preliminary evidence suggests that adding behavioral counseling to supervised PA in prostate cancer survivors may be feasible and result in better adherence to PA compared to exercise counseling alone, although additional refinement is needed. A combination of supervised and home-based PA may be feasible for behavior change in the self-management of prostate cancer. The study is registered with http://ClinicalTrials.gov (ID NCT03191968).

Standard-space atlas of the viscoelastic properties of the human brain.

Standard anatomical atlases are common in neuroimaging because they facilitate data analyses and comparisons across subjects and studies. The purpose of this study was to develop a standardized human brain atlas based on the physical mechanical properties (i.e., tissue viscoelasticity) of brain tissue using magnetic resonance elastography (MRE). MRE is a phase contrast-based MRI method that quantifies tissue viscoelasticity noninvasively and in vivo thus providing a macroscopic representation of the microstructural constituents of soft biological tissue. The development of standardized brain MRE atlases are therefore beneficial for comparing neural tissue integrity across populations. Data from a large number of healthy, young adults from multiple studies collected using common MRE acquisition and analysis protocols were assembled (N = 134; 78F/ 56 M; 18-35 years). Nonlinear image registration methods were applied to normalize viscoelastic property maps (shear stiffness, µ, and damping ratio, ξ) to the MNI152 standard structural template within the spatial coordinates of the ICBM-152. We find that average MRE brain templates contain emerging and symmetrized anatomical detail. Leveraging the substantial amount of data assembled, we illustrate that subcortical gray matter structures, white matter tracts, and regions of the cerebral cortex exhibit differing mechanical characteristics. Moreover, we report sex differences in viscoelasticity for specific neuroanatomical structures, which has implications for understanding patterns of individual differences in health and disease. These atlases provide reference values for clinical investigations as well as novel biophysical signatures of neuroanatomy. The templates are made openly available (github.com/mechneurolab/mre134) to foster collaboration across research institutions and to support robust cross-center comparisons.

Body mass and cardiorespiratory fitness are associated with altered brain metabolism.

Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy provides measures of brain chemistry that are sensitive to cardiorespiratory fitness and body composition. The concentration of N-acetyl aspartic acid (NAA) is of interest because it is a marker of neuronal integrity. The ratio of NAA to creatine, a standard reference metabolite, has been shown to correlate with measures of both cardiorespiratory fitness and body composition. However, previous studies have explored these effects in isolation, making it impossible to know which of these highly correlated measures drive the correlations with NAA/Cr. As a result, the mechanisms underlying their association remain to be established. We therefore conducted a comprehensive study to investigate the relative contributions of cardiorespiratory fitness and percent body fat in predicting NAA/Cr. We demonstrate that NAA/Cr in white matter is correlated with percent body fat, and that this relationship largely subsumes the correlation of NAA/Cr with cardiorespiratory fitness. These results underscore the association of body composition with axonal integrity and suggests that this relationship drives the association of NAA/Cr with physical fitness in young adults.

Physical Activity, Sleep and Quality of Life in Older Adults: Influence of Physical, Mental and Social Well-being.

Introduction: Physical activity and sleep quality have been consistently associated with quality of life (QOL) in a number of clinical and non-clinical populations. However, mechanisms underlying this relationship are not well understood. The purpose of this study was to longitudinally test a model examining how changes in physical activity and sleep quality, predict physical, mental and social well-being and global QoL across a 6-month exercise trial in a sample of healthy older adults. Methods: Participants (N = 247, mean age 65.4 ± 4.6) wore an accelerometer to assess objective levels of physical activity and completed measures of sleep, physical and mental well-being, social well-being and QOL at baseline and following a 6-month physical activity intervention. Relationships among model constructs were examined over time using panel analysis within a covariance-modeling framework. Results: The hypothesized model provided a good model-data fit (χ2 = 58.77, df = 41, p = .036); CFI = 0.98; SRMR = 0.05; RMSEA = 0.04). At both time-points, physical activity and sleep quality were significantly correlated. Sleep quality indirectly influenced QOL via physical, mental and social well-being (QOL R2 = .47, p < .001). These relationships were also supported across time at month 6 (QOL R2 = .50, p < .001). Neither physical activity nor sleep quality directly influenced QOL. Conclusion: Our results support a novel sleep and QOL model that may inform the design of health interventions to promote sleep quality, and thereby influencing QOL by targeting physical activity and modifiable mediators of physical, mental and social health. Our findings may have significant implications for older adults as well as clinical populations that report compromised sleep, impaired health related and global QOL.

Higher striatal D2-receptor availability in aerobically fit older adults but non-selective intervention effects after aerobic versus resistance training.

There is much evidence that dopamine is vital for cognitive functioning in aging. Here we tested the hypothesis that aerobic exercise and fitness influence dopaminergic neurotransmission in the striatum, and in turn performance on offline working-memory updating tasks. Dopaminergic neurotransmission was measured by positron emission tomography (PET) and the non-displacable binding potential (BPND) of [11C]raclopride, i.e. dopamine (DA) D2-receptor (D2R) availability. Fifty-four sedentary older adults underwent a six-months exercise intervention, performing either aerobic exercise or stretching, toning, and resistance active control training. At baseline, higher aerobic fitness levels (VO2peak) were associated with higher BPND in the striatum, providing evidence of a link between an objective measure of aerobic fitness and D2R in older adults. BPND decreased substantially over the intervention in both groups but the intervention effects were non-selective with respect to exercise group. The decrease was several times larger than any previously estimated annual decline in D2R, potentially due to increased endogenous DA. Working-memory was unrelated to D2R both at baseline and following the intervention. To conclude, we provide partial evidence for a link between physical exercise and DA. Utilizing a PET protocol able to disentangle both D2R and DA levels could shed further light on whether, and how, aerobic exercise impacts the dopaminergic system in older adults.

Individual differences in analogical reasoning revealed by multivariate task-based functional brain imaging.

Although analogical reasoning (AR) plays a central role in higher-level cognition and constitutes a key source of individual differences in intellectual ability, the neural mechanisms that account for individual differences in AR remain to be well characterized. Here we investigated individual differences in AR within a large sample (n = 229), using multivariate fMRI analysis (a simple multiple kernel learning machine). The individual AR capability was positively correlated with activation level in a prefrontal executive network and a visuospatial network. Notably, the best predictors of individual differences in AR within these networks were activation in the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (response selection) and the lingual gyrus (visual feature mapping). In contrast, AR capability was negatively correlated with activation in the default mode network. The implications of the reported findings are twofold: (i) Individual differences in AR depend on multiple executive and visuospatial brain regions, where their respective contributions are contingent upon the individuals' cognitive skills; (ii) Brain regions associated with individual differences in AR only partially overlap with brain regions sensitive to the associated task demands (i.e., brain regions sensitive to the analogy relational complexity, at the group-level). We discuss implications of such brain organization supporting AR as an example for brain architecture underlying higher-level cognitive processes.

Cognitive and neural architecture of decision making competence.

Although cognitive neuroscience has made remarkable progress in understanding the neural foundations of goal-directed behavior and decision making, neuroscience research on decision making competence, the capacity to resist biases in human judgment and decision making, remain to be established. Here, we investigated the cognitive and neural mechanisms of decision making competence in 283 healthy young adults. We administered the Adult Decision Making Competence battery to assess the respondent's capacity to resist standard biases in decision making, including: (1) resistance to framing, (2) recognizing social norms, (3) over/under confidence, (4) applying decision rules, (5) consistency in risk perception, and (6) resistance to sunk costs. Decision making competence was assessed in relation to core facets of intelligence, including measures of crystallized intelligence (Shipley Vocabulary), fluid intelligence (Figure Series), and logical reasoning (LSAT). Structural equation modeling was applied to examine the relationship(s) between each cognitive domain, followed by an investigation of their association with individual differences in cortical thickness, cortical surface area, and cortical gray matter volume as measured by high-resolution structural MRI. The results suggest that: (i) decision making competence is associated with cognitive operations for logical reasoning, and (ii) these convergent processes are associated with individual differences within cortical regions that are widely implicated in cognitive control (left dACC) and social decision making (right superior temporal sulcus; STS). Our findings motivate an integrative framework for understanding the neural mechanisms of decision making competence, suggesting that individual differences in the cortical surface area of left dACC and right STS are associated with the capacity to overcome decision biases and exhibit competence in decision making.

Early life factors, gray matter brain volume and academic performance in overweight/obese children: The ActiveBrains project.

Early life factors may influence brain and academic outcomes later in life, especially during childhood. Here we investigate the associations of early life factors (i.e., birth weight, birth length, and breastfeeding) with gray matter volume, adjusted for body mass index and cardiorespiratory fitness, and ii) we test whether early-life factor-related differences in gray matter volume are associated with academic performance in overweight/obese children. 96 children with overweight/obesity aged 8-11 years participated. Birth weight, birth length and gestational age were collected from birth records, and breastfeeding practices were asked to parents. T1-weighted images were acquired with a 3.0 T Magnetom Tim Trio system. Academic performance was assessed with the Bateria III Woodcock-Muñoz Tests of Achievement. Whole-brain voxel-wise multiple regressions were used to test the associations of each early life factor with gray matter volume. Higher birth weight and birth length were associated with greater gray matter volume in 9 brain regions including the middle frontal gyrus, rectal gyrus, thalamus, putamen, middle temporal gyrus, lingual gyrus, middle occipital gyrus, calcarine cortex and cerebellum bilaterally (ß ranging from 0.361 to 0.539, t ranging from 3.46 to 5.62 and cluster size from 82 to 4478 voxels; p < 0.001); and greater duration of any breastfeeding was associated with greater gray matter volume in 3 regions including the bilateral inferior frontal gyrus and rolandic operculum (ß ranging from 0.359 to 0.408, t ranging from 4.01 to 4.32 and cluster size from 64 to 171 voxels; p < 0.001). No associations were found for duration of exclusive breastfeeding. Additionally, none of the gray matter regions that were associated with the early life factors were associated with academic performance (all p > 0.05). Our results demonstrate that birth weight, birth length, and breastfeeding are predictive of gray matter volume of numerous brain structures that are involved in higher order cognition and emotion regulation, but how these results relate to measures of academic achievement remain a matter of speculation.

Fitness, cortical thickness and surface area in overweight/obese children: The mediating role of body composition and relationship with intelligence.

Cortical thickness and surface area are thought to be genetically unrelated and shaped by independent neurobiological events suggesting that they should be considered separately in morphometric analyses. Although the developmental trajectories of cortical thickness and surface area may differ across brain regions and ages, there is no consensus regarding the relationships of physical fitness with cortical thickness and surface area as well as for its subsequent influence on intelligence. Thus, this study examines: (i) the associations of physical fitness components (i.e., cardiorespiratory fitness, speed-agility and muscular fitness) with overall and regional cortical thickness and surface area; (ii) whether body composition indicators (i.e., body mass index, fat-free mass index and fat mass index) mediate these associations; and (iii) the association of physical fitness and cortical thickness with intelligence in overweight/obese children. A total of 101 overweight/obese children aged 8-11 years were recruited in Granada, Spain. The physical fitness components were assessed following the ALPHA health-related fitness test battery. T1-weighted images were acquired with a 3.0 Tesla Siemens Magnetom Tim Trio system. We used FreeSurfer software version 5.3.0 to assess cortical thickness (mm) and surface area (mm2). The main results showed that cardiorespiratory fitness and speed-agility were related to overall cortical thickness (ß = 0.321 and ß = 0.302, respectively; both P < 0.05), and in turn, cortical thickness was associated with higher intelligence (ß = 0.198, P < 0.05). Muscular fitness was not related to overall cortical thickness. None of the three physical fitness components were related to surface area (p > 0.05). The associations of cardiorespiratory fitness and speed-agility with overall cortical thickness were mediated by fat mass index (56.86% & 62.28%, respectively). In conclusion, cardiorespiratory fitness and speed-agility, but not muscular fitness, are associated with overall cortical thickness, and in turn, thicker brain cortex is associated with higher intelligence in overweight/obese children. Yet, none of the three physical fitness components were related to surface area. Importantly, adiposity may hinder the benefits of cardiorespiratory fitness and speed-agility on cortical thickness. Understanding individual differences in brain morphology may have important implications for educators and policy makers who aim to determine policies and interventions to maximize academic learning and occupational success later in life.