Protein kinase a dependent phosphorylation of apical membrane antigen 1 plays an important role in erythrocyte invasion by the malaria parasite.

Apicomplexan parasites are obligate intracellular parasites that infect a variety of hosts, causing significant diseases in livestock and humans. The invasive forms of the parasites invade their host cells by gliding motility, an active process driven by parasite adhesion proteins and molecular motors. A crucial point during host cell invasion is the formation of a ring-shaped area of intimate contact between the parasite and the host known as a tight junction. As the invasive zoite propels itself into the host-cell, the junction moves down the length of the parasite. This process must be tightly regulated and signalling is likely to play a role in this event. One crucial protein for tight-junction formation is the apical membrane antigen 1 (AMA1). Here we have investigated the phosphorylation status of this key player in the invasion process in the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. We show that the cytoplasmic tail of P. falciparum AMA1 is phosphorylated at serine 610. We provide evidence that the enzyme responsible for serine 610 phosphorylation is the cAMP regulated protein kinase A (PfPKA). Importantly, mutation of AMA1 serine 610 to alanine abrogates phosphorylation of AMA1 in vivo and dramatically impedes invasion. In addition to shedding unexpected new light on AMA1 function, this work represents the first time PKA has been implicated in merozoite invasion.

Phosphorylation of the gap junction protein Connexin43 in CIN III lesions and cervical carcinomas.

Connexins are proteins that form the connexons, gap junction structures, which allow cells to communicate. Phosphorylation of connexins has been found to impair this communication. Using an antibody specifically recognizing the S279/S282-phosphorylated form of connexin43 (Cx43) for immunohistochemistry, we have analysed Cx43 phosphorylation in normal epithelium, CIN III lesions, and carcinomas of the cervix. We found that in normal epithelium the basal layer was devoid of staining and most of the protein was localized in stratum spinosum and stratum granulosum. In pre-malignant CIN-III lesions Cx43 was strongly phosphorylated, but the basal layer was still negative. In squamous carcinomas, the cells were intensely stained. In these tumours, sites of strong staining were adjacent to less stained regions, suggesting that the tumours are intrinsically heterogeneous. Immunoblotting of proteins extracted from carcinomas with the specific antibody showed the classical pattern of multiple reacting bands, with the appearance of low migrating forms of the protein. Our results suggest that increased S279/S282 phosphorylation of Cx43 is the result of altered tissue structure rather than of cell malignization.

The phosphorylated form of connexin43 is up-regulated in breast hyperplasias and carcinomas and in their neoformed capillaries.

We applied an antiserum (SA226P) specifically recognizing the phosphorylated form of connexin43 (P-Cx43) to human breast samples including normal breast samples, with fibrocystic disease (FCD), fibroadenomas (FA), in situ and infiltrating carcinomas of all major types, and miscellaneous extramammary tumors. The findings were compared with those obtained with commercial antisera recognizing all Cx43 forms (pan-Cx43). A subset of samples was stained for Her2-neu and p44/42 to mitogen-activated protein kinase. Paraffin step sections were used. Immunoblots were performed on frozen samples of a representative subset of cases. In the normal breast, FCD, and FA, SA226P stained strongly and extensively most myoepithelial cells (MECs); luminal cells remained unstained. In proliferative FCD and some cellular FA, SA226P stained MEC and the capillary endothelium (CE). In ductal and lobular in situ carcinomas, SA226P reacted strongly and diffusely with the remaining MEC, the CE, and the transformed luminal cells. SA226P stained all infiltrating carcinomas except the tubular variant. In all breast carcinomas, the CE within and adjacent to tumors and some myofibroblasts stained with SA226P. By contrast, pan-Cx43 stained weakly and sporadically the MEC and rare samples of invasive carcinomas. Notably, Mab p44/42 reacted in parallel with the samples stained with SA226P, whereas reactions with Her2 were negative. Immunoblot findings paralleled those obtained immunohistochemically. We conclude that P-Cx43, restricted to MEC in the normal breast, is up-regulated in the same cells in hyperplasias and dysplasias and FA and is strongly up-regulated in invasive carcinomas. Notably, in some proliferative FCD and in most in situ and infiltrating carcinomas, P-Cx43 is strongly expressed in CE within and adjacent to the lesions but not away from them. These findings were paralleled by the strong nuclear reactions noted with Mab p44/42. These phenomena, although not exclusive to malignancy, are particularly conspicuous in breast carcinomas and seemingly reflect active proliferation associated with abnormal gap junctional intercellular communication.

Mutation of human connexin43 amino acids s279/s282 increases protein stability upon treatment with epidermal growth factor.

Connexins are the structural units of gap junctions, structures allowing interchanging of information between the adjacent cells. Connexin43 (Cx43) is the most abundant gap junction protein. Cx43 can be degraded by lysosome- and proteasome-mediated processes upon internalisation of the entire structure. Only little is known about the role of phosphorylation during the gap junction degradation. In Cx43, a protein containing 14 amino acids susceptible to be phosphorylated, amino acids S279 and S282 are phosphorylated upon epidermal growth factor (EGF) treatment by erk1/2 MAP kinases. Here, we show that the wild-type Cx43 protein, as well as HeLa cells expressing the mutated Cx43 proteins S279A, S282A, and S279A/S282A, is mainly located at the plasma membrane. However, the protein stability is not altered in the isolated single mutants, whereas the double mutant S279A/S282A is strongly degradation impaired upon EGF treatment. This effect is not due to the decreased Cx43 internalisation, but seems to be related to a reduced ubiquitination.

Expression of the HPV11 E2 gene in transgenic mice does not result in alterations of the phenotypic pattern.

The E2 early protein of human papillomaviruses (HPV) has been found associated with the mitotic spindle therefore being implicated in the partition of the replicated viral DNA to daughter cells. In addition, E2 proteins bind to the upstream regulatory region of the virus and to cellular promoters modulating thereby cellular transcription and differentiation. In many cervical cancers, the E2 reading frame is interrupted upon incorporation of the viral genome into the host DNA. This results in the loss of the E2 mediated transcriptional repression and uncontrolled expression of the viral oncogenes. All these results have been obtained in transfected cells but no information is available on the E2 effects in the context of the entire organism. Transgenic mice were generated expressing the E2 protein of HPV11 under the control of the Ubiquitin C promoter. E2 mRNA is present in all mice tissues analysed and the E2 protein expressed in the skin (the target tissue of HPV11) was shown by Western blotting, albeit at a very low level. Analysis of the transgenic mice shows no major histological changes in the skin or all other tissues investigated. These data indicate that in transgenic mice the human papillomavirus type 11 E2 does not grossly modulate cellular proliferation or differentiation events.

Ubiquitin protein ligase Nedd4 binds to connexin43 by a phosphorylation-modulated process.

Connexin43 is degraded by the proteasomal as well as the lysosomal pathway with ubiquitin playing a role in both degradation pathways. So far, no ubiquitin protein ligase has been identified for any of the connexins. By using pull-down assays, here we show binding of a ubiquitin protein ligase, Nedd4, to the C-terminus of connexin43. This observation was confirmed in vivo by coimmunoprecipitation and immunofluorescence, showing colocalization of Nedd4 and connexin43. Binding of Nedd4 to its interaction partners is generally carried out by its WW domains. Our results indicate that the interaction with connexin43 occurs through all three WW domains of Nedd4. Furthermore, whereas WW1 and WW2 domains mainly interact with the unphosphorylated form of connexin43, WW3 binds phosphorylated and unphosphorylated forms equally. In addition, using the surface plasmon resonance approach we show that only the WW2 domain binds to the PY motif located at the C-terminus of connexin43. Suppression of Nedd4 expression with siRNA resulted in an accumulation of gap junction plaques at the plasma membrane, suggesting an involvement of the ubiquitin protein ligase Nedd4 in gap junction internalization.

Phosphorylation and subcellular distribution of connexin43 in normal and stressed cells.

We have developed polyclonal antibodies (SA226P) to a peptide of the human connexin43 (Cx43) protein between amino acids 271 and 288 containing phosphorylated S279 and S282. Antibodies specific for the phosphorylated form of the peptide were isolated by double immunoaffinity chromatography and were characterised using proteins of the cell line WB-F344, known to contain large amounts of Cx43. SA226P recognises specifically the slowest migrating Cx43 band in immunoblots of proteins isolated from untreated cells. In immunofluorescence experiments SA226P scarcely stains the plasma membrane in untreated cells in contrast to a commercial antibody recognising all isoforms of the Cx43 protein. EGF or stress treatment of the cells results in a rapid increase in the phosphorylated forms of Cx43 as revealed by immunoblotting. Immunofluorescence experiments reveal that both phosphorylated and non-phosphorylated Cx43 could be found at the plasma membrane. Whether phosphorylation of S279/S282 takes place before or after incorporation of Cx43 into the membranes is so far unknown. More interestingly, confocal microscopy using our antibodies and a commercial antibody recognising all isoforms of Cx43 shows the coexistence of differentially phosphorylated forms of the protein at the plasma membrane. Our results indicate that MAP kinases erk1/2 are mainly responsible for this phosphorylation, as already published. Nevertheless, treatment of the cells with anisomycin, known to activate stress kinase p38 but not erk1/2, also results in a weak but reproducible Cx43 phosphorylation.

Identification of membrane proteins differentially expressed in human papillomavirus type 16 E5-transfected human keratinocytes by nanoelectrospray ionization mass spectrometry.

Membrane proteins differentially expressed in human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV-16) E5-transfected HaCaT cells have been identified. Membrane proteins were isolated and separated by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. Spots showing quantitative differences between E5-transfected and control cells were extracted and the proteins were identified by nanoelectrospray ionization mass spectrometry. A total of 24 spots was analysed. Among the proteins showing differential expression, a decreased amount of calnexin and increased expression of hsp70, proteins both involved in maturation and transport of MHC class I complexes to the plasma membrane, were noticed. These findings correlate with the decreased surface expression of MHC class I molecules described in E5-expressing cells, HPV-positive cervical lesions and cervical carcinomas. These results stress the value of the proteomic approach, as used here in the experimental design, which allows the correlation of changes in host gene expression with biological functions of viral genes.