The 10,000-year biocultural history of fallow deer and its implications for conservation policy.

Over the last 10,000 y, humans have manipulated fallow deer populations with varying outcomes. Persian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica) are now endangered. European fallow deer (Dama dama) are globally widespread and are simultaneously considered wild, domestic, endangered, invasive and are even the national animal of Barbuda and Antigua. Despite their close association with people, there is no consensus regarding their natural ranges or the timing and circumstances of their human-mediated translocations and extirpations. Our mitochondrial analyses of modern and archaeological specimens revealed two distinct clades of European fallow deer present in Anatolia and the Balkans. Zooarchaeological evidence suggests these regions were their sole glacial refugia. By combining biomolecular analyses with archaeological and textual evidence, we chart the declining distribution of Persian fallow deer and demonstrate that humans repeatedly translocated European fallow deer, sourced from the most geographically distant populations. Deer taken to Neolithic Chios and Rhodes derived not from nearby Anatolia, but from the Balkans. Though fallow deer were translocated throughout the Mediterranean as part of their association with the Greco-Roman goddesses Artemis and Diana, deer taken to Roman Mallorca were not locally available Dama dama, but Dama mesopotamica. Romans also initially introduced fallow deer to Northern Europe but the species became extinct and was reintroduced in the medieval period, this time from Anatolia. European colonial powers then transported deer populations across the globe. The biocultural histories of fallow deer challenge preconceptions about the divisions between wild and domestic species and provide information that should underpin modern management strategies.

Bone of contention: Intra-element variability in remodelling of human femora based on histomorphometric and isotope analyses.

The volume of human carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotope data produced in archaeological research has increased markedly in recent years. However, knowledge of bone remodelling, its impact on isotope variation, and the temporal resolution of isotope data remains poorly understood. Varied remodelling rates mean different elements (e.g., femur and rib) produce different temporal signals but little research has examined intra-element variability. This study investigates human bone remodelling using osteon population density and the relationship with carbon and nitrogen isotope data at a high resolution, focusing on variation through femoral cross-sections, from periosteal to endosteal surfaces. Results demonstrate considerable differences in isotope values between cross-sectional segments of a single fragment, by up to 1.3‰ for carbon and 1.8‰ for nitrogen, illustrating the need for standardised sampling strategies. Remodelling also varies between bone sections, occurring predominantly within the endosteal portion, followed by the midcortical and periosteal. Therefore, the endosteal portion likely reflects a shorter period of life closer to the time of death, consistent with expectations. By contrast, the periosteal surface provides a longer average, though there were exceptions to this. Results revealed a weak negative correlation between osteon population density and δ15N or δ13C, confirming that remodelling has an effect on isotope values but is not the principal driver. However, a consistent elevation of δ15N and δ13C (0.5‰ average) was found between the endosteal and periosteal regions, which requires further investigation. These findings suggest that, with further research, there is potential for single bone fragments to reconstruct in-life dietary change and mobility, thus reducing destructive sampling.

Biomolecular evidence reveals mares and long-distance imported horses sacrificed by the last pagans in temperate Europe.

Horse sacrifice and deposition are enigmatic features of funerary rituals identified across prehistoric Europe that persisted in the eastern Baltic. Genetic and isotopic analysis of horses in Balt cemeteries [1st to 13th centuries CE (Common Era)] dismantle prevailing narratives that locally procured stallions were exclusively selected. Strontium isotope analysis provides direct evidence for long-distance (~300 to 1500 kilometers) maritime transport of Fennoscandian horses to the eastern Baltic in the Late Viking Age (11th to 13th centuries CE). Genetic analysis proves that horses of both sexes were sacrificed with 34% identified as mares. Results transform the understanding of selection criteria, disprove sex-based selection, and elevate prestige value as a more crucial factor. These findings also provide evidence that the continued interaction between pagans and their newly Christianized neighbors sustained the performance of funerary horse sacrifice until the medieval transition. We also present a reference 87Sr/86Sr isoscape for the southeastern Baltic, releasing the potential of future mobility studies in the region.

Wet feet: developing sulfur isotope provenance methods to identify wetland inhabitants.

The stable isotopes of sulfur provide a distinctive signature for marine proximity and interaction. Exploring coastal proximity has been the principal application of sulfur isotopes in archaeology and palaeoecology, but this deals only with high (greater than 14‰) isotope values, meaning little interpretation has been gained from lower values. Progress has been hindered by issues with biosphere mapping. Air pollution can impact modern landscapes, significantly lowering sulfur isotope baselines, leading to the assumption that modern vegetation-based sulfur maps are not reliable. This research explores the potential of previously undiagnostic low, and often, negative sulfur isotope values for identifying wetland dwellers. Impervious clays that support wetlands are distinctive ecosystems and this study tests the hypothesis that they will produce low isotope values owing to both the underlying substrate and to redox conditions. Primary mapping of targeted areas using modern plants highlights zones with natural negative sulfur values and demonstrates that this constitutes a distinctive wetland signature. Analysis of modern and archaeological fauna demonstrates that these distinctive isotope compositions are transferred into the food chain. These findings propel the interpretative potential of sulfur isotopes forward and add to the growing knowledge to provide means for identifying archaeological humans and animals raised in wetlands.

Applying lead (Pb) isotopes to explore mobility in humans and animals.

Lead (Pb) isotopes provide a complementary method to other provenance tools for tracking the origin and movement of humans and animals. The method is founded in the geographic distribution of Pb isotope ratios. However, unlike the Sr isotope method that is closely linked to the lithology of underlying rocks, Pb more closely reflects the tectonic regimes. This makes it particularly pertinent to use in Britain as there is major tectonic boundary (the Iapetus Suture) that runs between Berwick-upon-Tweed and the Solway Firth providing a compositional boundary in Pb isotope domains that approximates to the geographic areas of Scotland versus England and Wales. Modern pollution makes it difficult to use modern floral or faunal samples to characterize biosphere variation, and so we use geological datasets to define isoscape variation and present the first Pb isotope map of Britain. We have validated the use of these data form biosphere studies using well provenanced samples. Reference fields of diagnostic compositions, are created in µ-T space and these have been used in a test case to assess the geographic origins of Neolithic animals in Great Britain.

Diversity aboard a Tudor warship: investigating the origins of the Mary Rose crew using multi-isotope analysis.

The great Tudor warship, the Mary Rose, which sank tragically in the Solent in 1545 AD, presents a rare archaeological opportunity to research individuals for whom the precise timing and nature of death are known. A long-standing question surrounds the composition of the Tudor navy and whether the crew were largely British or had more diverse origins. This study takes a multi-isotope approach, combining strontium (87Sr/86Sr), oxygen (δ18O), sulfur (δ34S), carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotope analysis of dental samples to reconstruct the childhood diet and origins of eight of the Mary Rose crew. Forensic ancestry estimation was also employed on a subsample. Provenancing isotope data tentatively suggests as many as three of the crew may have originated from warmer, more southerly climates than Britain. Five have isotope values indicative of childhoods spent in western Britain, one of which had cranial morphology suggestive of African ancestry. The general trend of relatively high δ15N and low δ13C values suggests a broadly comparable diet to contemporaneous British and European communities. This multi-isotope approach and the nature of the archaeological context has allowed the reconstruction of the biographies of eight Tudor individuals to a higher resolution than is usually possible.

Exploring the potential of TEM analysis for understanding cooking at prehistoric feasting sites.

This study explores the utility of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis of bone collagen for investigating prehistoric cooking. Approaches to cooking practices have relied principally on artefactual evidence, macroscopic bone modification, and organic residue analysis. However, direct evidence for cooking of bone has been limited. Richter and Koon successfully applied TEM analysis of collagen to determine heating to modern and medieval bones, but this method has yet to be experimentally tested using prehistoric remains. Collagen will denature at relatively low temperatures, such as during roasting, boiling, or baking. The denaturation of collagen causes predictable structural changes that can be viewed through TEM. Zooarchaeological remains of sheep and pig with minimal taphonomic modifications were analysed from four later prehistoric (c. 800-500BC) sites in Britain (n = 33). Humeri and phalanges were selected to compare elements with high and low meat yields. Samples were classified into 'Heated' and 'Unheated' groups consistent with previous studies, and variable patterns were observed between different sites and taxa. Analytical limitations have hindered the study of cooking in the past, but this study demonstrates the potential of this taphonomic method for exploring prehistoric cooking practices and provides a springboard for wider studies.

Correction: The dietary impact of the Norman Conquest: A multiproxy archaeological investigation of Oxford, UK.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0235005.].

The dietary impact of the Norman Conquest: A multiproxy archaeological investigation of Oxford, UK.

Archaeology has yet to capitalise on the opportunities offered by bioarchaeological approaches to examine the impact of the 11th-century AD Norman Conquest of England. This study utilises an integrated multiproxy analytical approach to identify and explain changes and continuities in diet and foodways between the 10th and 13th centuries in the city of Oxford, UK. The integration of organic residue analysis of ceramics, carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotope analysis of human and animal bones, incremental analysis of δ13C and δ15N from human tooth dentine and palaeopathological analysis of human skeletal remains has revealed a broad pattern of increasing intensification and marketisation across various areas of economic practice, with a much lesser and more short-term impact of the Conquest on everyday lifestyles than is suggested by documentary sources. Nonetheless, isotope data indicate short-term periods of instability, particularly food insecurity, did impact individuals. Evidence of preferences for certain foodstuffs and cooking techniques documented among the elite classes were also observed among lower-status townspeople, suggesting that Anglo-Norman fashions could be adopted across the social spectrum. This study demonstrates the potential for future archaeological research to generate more nuanced understanding of the cultural impact of the Norman Conquest of England, while showcasing a method which can be used to elucidate the undocumented, everyday implications of other large-scale political events on non-elites.

Feasting and Mobility in Iron Age Ireland: Multi-isotope analysis reveals the vast catchment of Navan Fort, Ulster.

Navan Fort is an iconic prehistoric Irish ceremonial centre and the legendary capital of Ulster. The fort has produced an exceptional pig-dominated faunal assemblage that also contained a barbary macaque skull. Dating from the 4th to 1st century BC, it is likely to be a ceremonial feasting centre that may have drawn people and their animals from across Ulster and beyond. This study uses a multi-isotope (87Sr/86Sr, δ34S, δ13C, δ15N) approach to identify non-local animals and reconstruct site catchment. New biosphere mapping means that isotope data can be more confidently interpreted and the combination of strontium and sulphur analysis has the potential to estimate origins. In the absence of human remains, fauna provide the best proxy for human movement. Results for the 35 analysed animals are wide-ranging, especially in terms of strontium (0.707-0.715), which has the largest range for an Irish site. Sulphur values are more restricted (13.1‰-17.1‰) but are high in the context of British and Irish data. Results provide clear evidence for animals (and thus people) coming from across Ulster and beyond, demonstrating the site's wide catchment. Navan Fort was clearly a major ceremonial centre with far-reaching influence and hosted feasts that drew people and animals from afar.

Tracking natural and anthropogenic Pb exposure to its geological source.

Human Pb exposure comes from two sources: (i) natural uptake through ingestion of soils and typified by populations that predate mining activity and (ii) anthropogenic exposure caused by the exposure to Pb derived from ore deposits. Currently, the measured concentration of Pb within a sample is used to discriminate between these two exposure routes, with the upper limit for natural exposure in skeletal studies given as 0.5 or 0.7 mg/kg in enamel and 0.5/0.7 µg/dL in blood. This threshold approach to categorising Pb exposure does not distinguish between the geological origins of the exposure types. However, Pb isotopes potentially provide a more definitive means of discriminating between sources. Whereas Pb from soil displays a crustal average 238U/204Pb (µ) value of c 9.7, Pb from ore displays a much wider range of evolution pathways. These characteristics are transferred into tooth enamel, making it possible to characterize human Pb exposure in terms of the primary source of ingested Pb and to relate mining activity to geotectonic domains. We surmise that this ability to discriminate between silicate and sulphide Pb exposure will lead to a better understanding of the evolution of early human mining activity and development of exposure models through the Anthropocene.

Analysis of tidal breathing profiles in cystic fibrosis and COPD.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: To explore the flow and time domain characteristics of resting tidal airflow profiles in the presence of obstructive airway disease. METHODS: Spirometry was performed on 81 adults and 46 juveniles in the lung function laboratory. All the juveniles had cystic fibrosis (CF), as did some of the adults (n = 25), with the remainder having either healthy lungs or COPD. Resting breathing profiles were recorded using a pneumotachograph. Thirteen flow and time domain parameters were extracted from each profile. Two new indexes were derived that are influenced by the shape of the post-peak expiratory flow portion of the expirogram. In this expirogram, the first index (change in post-peak expiratory flow at time 20% [TPPEF(20)]) describes early changes in post-peak flow, while the second index (change in post-peak expiratory flow at time 80% [TPPEF(80)]) describes later changes in flow. Multiple linear regression techniques were used to define the relationship between body size, flow and time domain parameters, and FEV(1), a measure of obstructive airway disease. RESULTS: In juvenile subjects with CF, body weight and the time to reach peak expiratory flow are the main correlates with FEV(1) (adjusted r(2) = 0.74). The adult CF group are different with the expiratory flow index (TPPEF(20)) being the major correlate with FEV(1) (adjusted r(2) = 0.77). In the COPD group, the second expiratory flow index (TPPEF(80)) is the major correlate instead (adjusted r(2) = 0.6). CONCLUSIONS: Using multiple linear regression techniques has allowed the description of the interrelationships between body size, age, and tidal breathing profile in obstructive airway disease. The relationship between the flow indexes TPPEF(20) and TPPEF(80) show that in adults with CF, the loss of expiratory flow braking is an important adaptation to disease, while in COPD pulmonary hyperinflation is the predominant factor.

Changes in lung function and tidal airflow patterns after increasing extrathoracic airway resistance.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to determine what changes occur in previously described tidal expiratory flow patterns when extrathoracic resistance is added. METHODOLOGY: A total of 16 subjects with normal lung function and 15 patients with chronic COPD, were studied. The following measurements were made before and after the addition of an extrathoracic expiratory resistance (EER; 0.89 kPa/L s at a flow of 0.5 L/s) during uncoached tidal breathing: expiratory time (tE), frequency (f), expiratory time to maximum flow/total expiratory time (tPTEF/tE), tidal maximum expiratory flow (PEF(TIDAL)), and time constant of the respiratory system calculated from the passive portion of tidal expiration (trs(TIDAL)). Post peak profiles were categorized as convex, linear or concave and time for flow to fall to 80% and 20% of maximum (t80 and t20) were measured. RESULTS: Tidal indices tE, f and PEF(TIDAL), were similar in the two groups, but tPTEF/tE was greater and trs(TIDAL) was less in the normal subjects than in the COPD patients. Addition of EER in both groups caused PEF(TIDAL) to decrease and trs(TIDAL), t80 and the percentage of convex profiles to increase. tPTEF/tE increased in the COPD patients but was unchanged in the control group. CONCLUSION: After addition of EER during tidal breathing, expiratory flow in COPD patients resembled that seen in normal subjects.