Arrangement of Hydrogen Bonds in Aqueous Solutions of Different Globular Proteins.

This work presents the first evidence that dissolved globular proteins change the arrangement of hydrogen bonds in water, with different proteins showing quantitatively different effects. Using ATR-FTIR (attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared) spectroscopic analysis of OH-stretch bands, we obtain quantitative estimates of the relative amounts of the previously reported four subpopulations of water structures coexisting in a variety of aqueous solutions. Where solvatochromic dyes can measure the properties of solutions of non-ionic polymers, the results correlate well with ATR-FTIR measurements. In protein solutions to which solvatochromic dye probes cannot be applied, NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) spectroscopy was used for the first time to estimate the hydrogen bond donor acidity of water. We found strong correlations between the solvent acidity and arrangement of hydrogen bonds in aqueous solutions for several globular proteins. Even quite similar proteins are found to change water properties in dramatically different ways.

Interfacial tension and mechanism of liquid-liquid phase separation in aqueous media.

The organization of multiple subcellular compartments is controlled by liquid-liquid phase separation. Phase separation of this type occurs with the emergence of interfacial tension. Aqueous two-phase systems formed by two non-ionic polymers can be used to separate and analyze biological macromolecules, cells and viruses. Phase separation in these systems may serve as the simple model of phase separation in cells also occurring in aqueous media. To better understand liquid-liquid phase separation mechanisms, interfacial tension was measured in aqueous two-phase systems formed by dextran and polyethylene glycol and by polyethylene glycol and sodium sulfate in the presence of different additives. Interfacial tension values depend on differences between the solvent properties of the coexisting phases, estimated experimentally by parameters representing dipole-dipole, ion-dipole, ion-ion, and hydrogen bonding interactions. Based on both current and literature data, we propose a mechanism for phase separation in aqueous two-phase systems. This mechanism is based on the fundamental role of intermolecular forces. Although it remains to be confirmed, it is possible that these may underlie all liquid-liquid phase separation processes in biology.

Interaction of a model apolipoprotein, apoLp-III, with an oil-phospholipid interface.

Lipid droplets are "small" organelles that play an important role in de novo synthesis of new membrane, and steroid hormones, as well as in energy storage. The way proteins interact specifically with the oil-(phospho-)lipid monolayer interface of lipid droplets is a relatively unexplored but crucial question. Here, we use our home built liquid droplet tensiometer to mimic intracellular lipid droplets and study protein-lipid interactions at this interface. As model neutral lipid binding protein, we use apoLp-III, an amphipathic α-helix bundle protein. This domain is also found in proteins from the perilipin family and in apoE. Protein binding to the monolayer is studied by the decrease in the oil/water surface tension. Previous work used POPC (one of the major lipids found on lipid droplets) to form the phospholipid monolayer on the triolein surface. Here we expand this work by incorporating other lipids with different physico-chemical properties to study the effect of charge and lipid head-group size. This study sheds light on the affinity of this important protein domain to interact with lipids.

Bending nematic liquid crystal membranes with phospholipids.

The interactions of phospholipids with liquid crystals have formed the basis for attractive biosensor technologies, but many questions remain concerning the basic physics and chemistry of these interactions. Phospholipids such as 1,2-dilauroyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DLPC), at sufficiently high (∼1 µM) concentrations and/or sufficiently long times, turn the liquid crystal director perpendicular to the LC/water interface. If the other side of the LC film is in contact with a surface that prefers perpendicular alignment, the LC film appears completely dark between crossed polarizers. Recently, however, Popov et al. (J. Mater. Chem. B, 2017, 5, 5061) noted that at even higher (∼10 µM) DLPC concentrations, the liquid crystal texture brightens again between crossed polarizers. To explain this surprising observation, it was suggested that the LC interface might bend. In this paper we show by optical surface profiler measurements that indeed the interface of the LC film of 4-cyano-4'-octylbiphenyl (8CB) suspended in a transmission electron microscopy (TEM) grid with openings of ∼0.5 mm in diameter bends towards the lipid-coated interface. We demonstrate that where the bending occurs, the bent interface exhibits extreme sensitivity to air pressure variations, producing an optical response with acoustic stimulation. Finally, we suggest a physical mechanism for this astonishing result.

Insertion of perilipin 3 into a glycero(phospho)lipid monolayer depends on lipid headgroup and acyl chain species.

Lipid droplets (LDs) are organelles that contribute to various cellular functions that are vital for life. Aside from acting as a neutral lipid storage depot, they are also involved in building new membranes, synthesis of steroid hormones, and cell signaling. Many aspects of LD structure and function are not yet well-understood. Here we investigate the interaction of perilipin 3, a member of the perilipin family of LD binding proteins, and three N-terminal truncation mutants with lipid monolayers. The interaction is studied as a function of surface pressure for a series of systematically chosen lipids. We find that the C terminus of perilipin 3 has different insertion behavior from that of the longer truncation mutants and the full-length protein. Inclusion of N-terminal sequences with the C terminus decreases the ability of the protein construct to insert in lipid monolayers. Coupling of anionic lipids to negative spontaneous curvature facilitates protein interaction and insertion. The C terminus shows strong preference for lipids with more saturated fatty acids. This work sheds light on the LD binding properties and function of the different domains of perilipin 3.

Insertion of apoLp-III into a lipid monolayer is more favorable for saturated, more ordered, acyl-chains.

Neutral lipid transport in mammals is complicated involving many types of apolipoprotein. The exchangeable apolipoproteins mediate the transfer of hydrophobic lipids between tissues and particles, and bind to cell surface receptors. Amphipathic α-helices form a common structural motif that facilitates their lipid binding and exchangeability. ApoLp-III, the only exchangeable apolipoprotein found in insects, is a model amphipathic α-helix bundle protein and its three dimensional structure and function mimics that of the mammalian proteins apoE and apoAI. Even the intracellular exchangeable lipid droplet protein TIP47/perilipin 3 contains an α-helix bundle domain with high structural similarity to that of apoE and apoLp-III. Here, we investigated the interaction of apoLp-III from Locusta migratoria with lipid monolayers. Consistent with earlier work we find that insertion of apoLp-III into fluid lipid monolayers is highest for diacylglycerol. We observe a preference for saturated and more highly ordered lipids, suggesting a new mode of interaction for amphipathic α-helix bundles. X-ray reflectivity shows that apoLp-III unfolds at a hydrophobic interface and flexible loops connecting the amphipathic α-helices stay in solution. X-ray diffraction indicates that apoLp-III insertion into diacylglycerol monolayers induces additional ordering of saturated acyl-chains. These results thus shed important new insight into the protein-lipid interactions of a model exchangeable apolipoprotein with significant implications for its mammalian counterparts.

Insertion of liquid crystal molecules into hydrocarbon monolayers.

Atomistic molecular dynamics simulations were carried out to investigate the molecular mechanisms of vertical surface alignment of liquid crystals. We study the insertion of nCB (4-Cyano-4'-n-biphenyl) molecules with n = 0,…,6 into a bent-core liquid crystal monolayer that was recently found to provide good vertical alignment for liquid crystals. The results suggest a complex-free energy landscape for the liquid crystal within the layer. The preferred insertion direction of the nCB molecules (core or tail first) varies with n, which can be explained by entropic considerations. The role of the dipole moments was found to be negligible. As vertical alignment is the leading form of present day liquid crystal displays (LCD), these results will help guide improvement of the LCD technology, as well as lend insight into the more general problem of insertion of biological and other molecules into lipid and surfactant layers.

Line tension and line entropy associated with the monolayer/trilayer boundary of smectic liquid crystal at the air-water interface.

Molecularly thin films of the smectic liquid crystal 4'-octyl-4-biphenylcarbonitrile (8CB) at the air-water interface phase separate into regions with different numbers of layers, in analogy with freestanding smectic liquid crystalline films. This paper reports the line tension associated with the boundary of coexisting trilayer and monolayer phases of in Langmuir films of 8CB at the air-water interface as a function of temperature and humidity and infers information on the boundary profile between the coexisting phases. Two complementary techniques are used to characterize the 8CB thin films: surface pressure-area isotherm and Brewster angle microscopy (BAM). We determine the line tension by stretching isolated domains from their equilibrium circular shape and analyzing the free relaxation with a hydrodynamic model. Then, we interpret the line tension vs temperature data in terms of an excess line entropy for the domain boundary, which requires careful consideration of the thermodynamics of inhomogeneous monolayer systems.

Surface Tension of Two Near-Ideal Binary Liquid Mixtures and the Influence of Adjacent Vapors.

The measured surface tension of a binary liquid is found to depend strongly on the constituents of the adjacent vapor and on whether equilibrium has been achieved, giving insight into the complex interfacial configuration. This dependence is quantified by three techniques that offer complementary insights: surface tension measurements with a constrained sessile drop surrounded by different vapors, surface tension measurements by surface light scattering spectroscopy in a sealed cell at equilibrium, and molecular dynamics simulations of the equilibrium surface tension and excess surface concentration. Ensuring homogeneity of the binary liquid, which is essential for surface light scattering, was found to be nontrivial and was assured by high-sensitivity Schlieren imaging. Two pairs of liquids, n-pentane with 2-methylpentane and n-pentane with n-hexane, were investigated. The first pair was motivated by the observed improvement in the effectiveness of binary fluids versus a single constituent in wickless heat pipes studied in microgravity. The second pair was used for comparison. Experimental evaluation of different volume fractions of the two liquids showed strong dependence of surface tension on the relative concentration of different molecules near the interfacial region. For the above pairs of liquids, which appear to form ideal mixtures in bulk, we present sufficiently precise surface tension measurements to indicate unexpectedly complex behaviors at interfaces.

Interaction of Two Amphipathic α-Helix Bundle Proteins, ApoLp-III and ApoE 3, with the Oil-Aqueous Interface.

Protein-lipid interactions govern the structure and function of lipoprotein particles, which transport neutral lipids and other hydrophobic cargo through the blood stream. Apolipoproteins cover the surface of lipoprotein particles, including low-density (LDL) and high-density (HDL) lipoproteins, and determine their function. Previous work has focused on small peptides derived from these apolipoproteins or used such artificial lipid systems as Langmuir monolayers or the lipid disc assay to determine how apolipoproteins interact with the neutral lipid interface. Here, we focus on a recurring protein domain found in many neutral lipid-binding proteins, the amphipathic α-helix bundle. We use liquid droplet tensiometry to investigate protein-lipid interactions on an oil droplet, which mimics the real lipoprotein interface. The N-terminus of apoE 3 and full-length apoLp-III serve as model proteins. We find that each protein interacts with lipid monolayers at the oil-aqueous interface in unique ways. For the first time, we show that helix bundle unfolding is critical for proper protein insertion into the lipid monolayer at the oil-aqueous interface and that specific membrane lipids promote the rebinding of protein upon fluctuation in droplet size. These results shed new light on how amphipathic apolipoprotein α-helix bundles interact with neutral lipid particles.

Converging Microlens Array Using Nematic Liquid Crystals Doped with Chiral Nanoparticles.

Nematic liquid crystals of achiral molecules or racemic mixtures of chiral ones form flat films when suspended in submillimeter size grids and submerged under water. Recently, it has been shown (Popov et al., 2017) that films of nematic liquid crystals doped with chiral molecules adopt biconvex lens shapes underwater. The curved shape together with degenerate planar anchoring leads to a radial variation of the optical axis along the plane of the film, providing a Pancharatnam-Berry-type phase lens that modifies geometric optical imaging. Here, we describe nematic liquid crystal microlenses formed by the addition of chiral nanoparticles. It is found that the helical twisting power of the nanoparticles, the key factor to form the lens, is about 400 µm-1, greater than that of the strongest molecular chiral dopants. We demonstrate imaging capabilities and measure the shape as well as the focal length of the chiral nanoparticle-doped liquid crystal lens. We show that measuring the shape of the lens allows one to calculate the helical pitch of the chiral nematic liquid crystal and thus determine the helical twisting power of the chiral ligand-capped nanoparticles. Such measurements require the use of only nanograms of chiral nanoparticles, which is 3 orders of magnitude less than that required by conventional techniques. Since NPs are sensitive to external stimuli such as light and electric and magnetic fields, the use of chiral NPs may allow the achievement of tunable optical properties for such microlens arrays.

The C-Terminus of Perilipin 3 Shows Distinct Lipid Binding at Phospholipid-Oil-Aqueous Interfaces.

Lipid droplets (LDs) are ubiquitously expressed organelles; the only intracellular organelles that contain a lipid monolayer rather than a bilayer. Proteins localize and bind to this monolayer as they do to intracellular lipid bilayers. The mechanism by which cytosolic LD binding proteins recognize, and bind, to this lipid interface remains poorly understood. Amphipathic α-helix bundles form a common motif that is shared between cytosolic LD binding proteins (e.g., perilipins 2, 3, and 5) and apolipoproteins, such as apoE and apoLp-III, found on lipoprotein particles. Here, we use pendant drop tensiometry to expand our previous work on the C-terminal α-helix bundle of perilipin 3 and the full-length protein. We measure the recruitment and insertion of perilipin 3 at mixed lipid monolayers at an aqueous-phospholipid-oil interface. We find that, compared to its C-terminus alone, the full-length perilipin 3 has a higher affinity for both a neat oil/aqueous interface and a phosphatidylcholine (PC) coated oil/aqueous interface. Both the full-length protein and the C-terminus show significantly more insertion into a fully unsaturated PC monolayer, contrary to our previous results at the air-aqueous interface. Additionally, the C-terminus shows a preference for lipid monolayers containing phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), whereas the full-length protein does not. These results strongly support a model whereby both the N-terminal 11-mer repeat region and C-terminal amphipathic α-helix bundle domains of perilipin 3 have distinct lipid binding, and potentially biological roles.

Hydrogen Bond Arrangement Is Shown to Differ in Coexisting Phases of Aqueous Two-Phase Systems.

Analysis by attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy shows that each coexisting phase in aqueous two-phase systems has a different arrangement of hydrogen bonds. Specific arrangements vary for systems formed by different solutes. The hydrogen bond arrangement is shown to correlate with differences in hydrophobic and electrostatic properties of the different phases of five specific systems, four formed by two polymers and one by a single polymer and salt. The results presented here suggest that the arrangement of hydrogen bonds may be an important factor in phase separation.

Gasous hole closing in a polymer Langmuir monolayer.

The hole-closing phenomenon is studied in a polymer Langmuir film with coexisting gaseous and liquid phases both as a test of hydrodynamic theories of a two-dimensional fluid embedded in a three-dimensional one and as a means to accurately determine line tension, an important parameter determining size, shape, and dynamics within these and other membrane model systems. The hole-closing curve consists of both a universal linear regime and a history-dependent nonlinear one. Improved experimental technique allows us to explore the origin of the nonlinear regime. The linear regime confirms previous theoretical work and yields a value lambda = (0.69 +/- 0.02) pN for the line tension of the boundary between the gaseous and liquid phases. The observed hole closing also demonstrates that the two-dimensional polymer gas must be taken as having a small, probably negligible elasticity, so that line-tension measurements assuming that both phases are incompressible should be re-evaluated.

Structure of ceramide-1-phosphate at the air-water solution interface in the absence and presence of Ca2+.

Ceramide-1-phosphate, the phosphorylated form of ceramide, gained attention recently due to its diverse intracellular roles, in particular in inflammation mediated by cPLA(2)alpha. However, surprisingly little is known about the physical chemical properties of this lipid and its potential impact on physiological function. For example, the presence of Ca(2+) is indispensable for the interaction of Cer-1-P with the C2 domain of cPLA(2)alpha. We report on the structure and morphology of Cer-1-P in monomolecular layers at the air/water solution interface in the absence and presence of Ca(2+) using diverse biophysical techniques, including synchrotron x-ray reflectivity and grazing angle diffraction, to gain insight into the role and function of Cer-1-P in biomembranes. We show that relatively small changes in pH and the presence of monovalent cations dramatically affect the behavior of Cer-1-P. On pure water Cer-1-P forms a solid monolayer despite the negative charge of the phosphomonoester headgroup. In contrast, pH 7.2 buffer yields a considerably less solid-like monolayer, indicating that charge-charge repulsion becomes important at higher pH. Calcium was found to bind strongly to the headgroup of Cer-1-P even in the presence of a 100-fold larger Na(+) concentration. Analysis of the x-ray reflectivity data allowed us to estimate how much Ca(2+) is bound to the headgroup, approximately 0.5 Ca(2+) and approximately 1.0 Ca(2+) ions per Cer-1-P molecule for the water and buffer subphase respectively. These results can be qualitatively understood based on the molecular structure of Cer-1-P and the electrostatic/hydrogen-bond interactions of its phosphomonoester headgroup. Biological implications of our results are also discussed.

Line tension and structure of smectic liquid-crystal multilayers at the air-water interface.

At the air-water interface, 4'-8-alkyl[1,1'-biphenyl]-4-carbonitrile (8CB) domains with different thicknesses coexist in the same Langmuir film, as multiple bilayers on a monolayer. The edge dislocation at the domain boundary leads to line tension, which determines the domain shape and dynamics. By observing the domain relaxation process starting from small distortions, we find that the line tension lambda is linearly dependent on the thickness difference DeltaL between the coexisting phases in the film, lambda=(3.3+/-0.2) mN/m DeltaL. Comparisons with theoretical treatments in the literature suggest that the edge dislocation at the boundary locates near the center of the film, which means that the 8CB multilayers are almost symmetric with respect to the air-water interface.

Determination of interphase line tension in Langmuir films.

A Langmuir film is a molecularly thin film on the surface of a fluid; we study the evolution of a Langmuir film with two coexisting fluid phases driven by an interphase line tension and damped by the viscous drag of the underlying subfluid. Experimentally, we study a 4{'} -8-alkyl[1, 1{'} -biphenyl]-4-carbonitrile (8CB) Langmuir film via digitally imaged Brewster angle microscopy in a four-roll mill setup which applies a transient strain and images the response. When a compact domain is stretched by the imposed strain, it first assumes a bola shape with two tear-drop shaped reservoirs connected by a thin tether which then slowly relaxes to a circular domain which minimizes the interfacial energy of the system. We process the digital images of the experiment to extract the domain shapes. We then use one of these shapes as an initial condition for the numerical solution of a boundary-integral model of the underlying hydrodynamics and compare the subsequent images of the experiment to the numerical simulation. The numerical evolutions first verify that our hydrodynamical model can reproduce the observed dynamics. They also allow us to deduce the magnitude of the line tension in the system, often to within 1%. We find line tensions in the range of 200-600pN; we hypothesize that this variation is due to differences in the layer depths of the 8CB fluid phases.

Thermotropic liquid crystal films for biosensors and beyond.

We briefly review studies of liquid crystal films suspended in submillimeter size grids for biosensing applications and beyond. Due to intense recent research, the sensitivity of liquid crystal films to targeted biologically relevant agents can be increased, and the LC surface can be functionalized to be sensitive only to pre-assigned pathogens. Beyond sensor applications, we show that novel liquid crystal defect structures can be used to manipulate separation and deposition of lipids. Finally, we demonstrate that not only the nematic liquid crystal phase, but also chiral nematic (cholesteric and blue phase) and smectic liquid crystals can be used for sensing and may extend the sensitivity and/or the selection of biomaterials, which can be sensed.

Chiral nematic liquid crystal microlenses.

Nematic liquid crystals (NLCs) of achiral molecules and racemic mixtures of chiral ones form flat films and show uniform textures between circular polarizers when suspended in sub-millimeter size grids and immersed in water. On addition of chiral dopants to the liquid crystal, the films exhibit optical textures with concentric ring patterns and radial variation of the birefringence color. Both are related to a biconvex shape of the chiral liquid crystal film; the rings are due to interference. The curvature radii of the biconvex lens array are in the range of a few millimeters. This curvature leads to a radial variation of the optical axis along the plane of the film. Such a Pancharatnam-type phase lens dominates the imaging and explains the measured focal length of about one millimeter. To our knowledge, these are the first spontaneously formed Pancharatnam devices. The unwinding of the helical structure at the grid walls drives the lens shape. The relation between the lens curvature and material properties such as helical pitch, the twist elastic constant, and the interfacial tensions, is derived. This simple, novel method for spontaneously forming microlens arrays can also be used for various sensors.

Thermotropic Liquid Crystal-Assisted Chemical and Biological Sensors.

In this review article, we analyze recent progress in the application of liquid crystal-assisted advanced functional materials for sensing biological and chemical analytes. Multiple research groups demonstrate substantial interest in liquid crystal (LC) sensing platforms, generating an increasing number of scientific articles. We review trends in implementing LC sensing techniques and identify common problems related to the stability and reliability of the sensing materials as well as to experimental set-ups. Finally, we suggest possible means of bridging scientific findings to viable and attractive LC sensor platforms.