Nrf2 Suppresses Allergic Lung Inflammation by Attenuating the Type 2 Innate Lymphoid Cell Response.

The Keap1-Nrf2 system plays a pivotal role in the oxidative stress response by inducing a number of cytoprotective genes. Under stress, damaged epithelial cells release cytokines that activate type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s), which mediate the allergic immune response. In this article, we investigated the role of the Keap1-Nrf2 pathway in ILC2 homeostasis and allergic inflammation using Nrf2 knockout mice. ILC2s from Nrf2-deficient mice showed a transient, upregulated IL-33 response and underwent hyperproliferation in response to a combined stimulation of IL-33 with IL-2, IL-7, or TSLP. This enhanced proliferation was correlated with an increased activation of downstream signals, including JAK1, Akt, and Erk1/2. In contrast, activating Nrf2 with a chemical inducer (CDDO-Im) decreased the viability of the wild-type but not of the Nrf2-deficient ILC2s. This effect on viability resembled that exerted by the corticosteroid dexamethasone; however, unlike the latter, the Nrf2-dependent cell death was mediated by neither caspase 3-dependent apoptosis nor necroptosis. Using a mouse intratracheal IL-33 administration allergy model, we found that the activation of Nrf2 by CDDO-Im in vivo decreased the number of pulmonary ILC2s and eosinophils. These findings indicated that Nrf2 is an important regulator of the allergic response by determining the survival and death of ILC2s, and these findings suggest that Nrf2 activation is a potential therapeutic strategy for steroid-resistant allergy alleviation.

Gene expression analyses of the small intestine of pigs in the ex-evacuation zone of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant.

BACKGROUND: After the accident at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant, radioactive contaminants were released over a widespread area. Monitoring the biological effects of radiation exposure in animals in the ex-evacuation zone should be continued to understand the health effects of radiation exposure in humans. The present study aimed to clarify the effects of radiation by investigating whether there is any alteration in the morphology and gene expressions of immune molecules in the intestine of pigs and inobuta (wild boar and domestic pig hybrid) in the ex-evacuation zone in 2012. Gene expression analysis was performed in small intestine samples from pigs, which were collected from January to February 2012, in the ex-evacuation zone. Pigs lived freely in this zone, and their small intestine was considered to be affected by the dietary intake of radioactive contaminants. RESULTS: Several genes were selected by microarray analysis for further investigation using real-time polymerase chain reaction. IFN-γ, which is an important inflammatory cytokine, and TLR3, which is a pattern recognize receptor for innate immune system genes, were highly elevated in these pigs. The expressions of the genes of these proteins were associated with the radiation level in the muscles. We also examined the alteration of gene expressions in wild boars 5 years after the disaster. The expression of IFN-γ and TLR3 remained high, and that of Cyclin G1, which is important in the cell cycle, was elevated. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrated that some changes in gene expression occurred in the small intestine of animals in the ex-evacuation zone after radiation. It is difficult to conclude that these alterations are caused by only artificial radionuclides from the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant. However, the animals in the ex-evacuation zone might have experienced some changes owing to radioactive materials, including contaminated soil, small animals, and insects. We need to continue monitoring the effects of long-term radiation exposure in living things.

Critical role of IL-25 in nematode infection-induced alterations in intestinal function.

IL-25 (IL-17E) is a member of the IL-17 cytokine family. IL-25-deficient mice exhibit impaired Th2 immunity against nematode infection, implicating IL-25 as a key component in mucosal immunity. The sources of IL-25 and mechanisms responsible for the induction of Th2 immunity by IL-25 in the gastrointestinal tract remain poorly understood. There is also little information on the regulation of IL-25 during inflammation or its role in gut function. In the current study, we investigated the regulation of IL-25 during Nippostrongylus brasiliensis infection and the contribution of IL-25 to the infection-induced alterations in intestinal function. We found that epithelial cells, but not immune cells, are the major source of IL-25 in the small intestine. N. brasiliensis infection-induced upregulation of IL-25 depends upon IL-13 activation of STAT6. IL-25(-/-) mice had diminished intestinal smooth muscle and epithelial responses to N. brasiliensis infection that were associated with an impaired Th2 protective immunity. Exogenous IL-25 induced characteristic changes similar to those after nematode infection but was unable to restore the impaired host immunity against N. brasiliensis infection in IL-13(-/-) mice. These data show that IL-25 plays a critical role in nematode infection-induced alterations in intestinal function that are important for host protective immunity, and IL-13 is the major downstream Th2 cytokine responsible for the IL-25 effects.

Radiation dose and gene expression analysis of wild boar 10 years after the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Plant accident.

The Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident led to contamination with radioactive cesium in an extensive environment in Japan in 2011. We evaluated the concentration of radioactive cesium in the skeletal muscles of 22 wild boars and the expression of IFN-γ, TLR3, and CyclinG1 in the small intestine and compared them with those of wild boar samples collected from Hyogo prefecture. The average 137Cs radioactivity concentration in wild boars in the ex-evacuation zone was 470 Bq/kg. Most of samples still showed radioactivity concentration that exceeded the regulatory limit for foods, but the dose remarkably decreased compared with samples just after the accident. IFN-γ expression was significantly higher in wild boars in the ex-evacuation zone than in samples from Hyogo prefecture. TLR3 expression was also upregulated. CyclinG1 expression also tended to be high. Hence, wild boars might have received some effects of low-dose radiation, and immune cells were activated to some extent. However, pathological examination revealed no inflammatory cell infiltration or pathological damage in the small intestine of wild boars in the ex-evacuation area. Long-term monitoring would be necessary, but we consider that the living body responds appropriately to a stimulus from a contaminated environment.

Immortalization of cells derived from domestic dogs through expressing mutant cyclin-dependent kinase 4, cyclin D1, and telomerase reverse transcriptase.

Dog is the first animal that was established as a close partner of human beings. Based on the vast genetic diversity and breeding, dogs exhibit unique genetic evolution and diversity from Chihuahua to St. Bernard. The safety tests of the pharmacological products also included domestic dogs as the test subjects. Although the safety confirmation test of chemicals for human use is important, the welfare of experimental animals requires special consideration. In this study, we cultured domestic dog-derived primary fibroblasts isolated from their muscle tissues. Furthermore, we successfully immortalized them through lentivirus-mediated gene transfer of mutant cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4), cyclin D1, and telomere reverse transcriptase (TERT). We further demonstrated that the established immortalized domestic dog-derived fibroblasts retained the characteristics of the original parental cells. These cells might act a suitable in vivo model system to replace the implication of animals for evaluating the potential toxicity of pharmacological chemicals. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10616-021-00504-0.

IL-13 receptor alpha2 regulates the immune and functional response to Nippostrongylus brasiliensis infection.

IL-13 has a prominent role in host defense against the gastrointestinal nematode Nippostrongylus brasiliensis; however, the role of IL-13Ralpha2 in the immune and functional response to enteric infection is not known. In the current study, we investigated changes in smooth muscle and epithelial cell function as well as alterations in gene expression of IL-13 and IL-4 and their receptors using laser-capture microdissection of specific cell types in the small intestine of N. brasiliensis-infected mice. An infection-induced up-regulation of IL-13Ralpha2 gene expression was confined to smooth muscle and was dependent on STAT6 and IL-13, but not on IL-4. In contrast, expression of IL-13Ralpha1 was reduced, indicating that changes in IL-13alpha2 expression serve to limit the biological effects of IL-13. The increased availability of IL-13 in IL-13Ralpha2(-/-) mice resulted in marked changes in constitutive epithelial and smooth muscle function. In addition, maximal changes in smooth muscle hypercontractility and epithelial cell resistance peaked earlier after infection in IL-13Ralpha2(-/-) compared with wild-type mice. This did not coincide with an earlier Th2 immune response as expression of IL-4 and IL-13 was attenuated in IL-13Ralpha2(-/-) mice and worm expulsion was similar to that of wild-type mice. These data show that IL-13Ralpha2 plays an important role in nematode infection by limiting the availability of IL-13 during infection, thereby regulating both the immune and biological effects of IL-13.

Th2 immune responses and alternatively activated macrophages (AAMacs) in helminth infection in aged mice.

This study aims to understand Th2 immune responses and alternative macrophage activation against nematode parasites in aged mice. Eighteen-month (18 M) and three-month (3 M) old C3H/HeN mice were inoculated with Heligmosomoides polygyrus (Hp) larvae. Real-time PCR analysis indicated that interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-13 gene expression was elevated in both groups after infection, but the expression level was significantly low in 18 M mice. Macrophage phenotype was monitored by measuring arginase-1 gene expression and immunofluorescence staining in small intestine, showing a decrease in the number of alternatively activated macrophages (AAMacs) around worm cysts in 18 M mice. These results suggest that the Th2 immune response in aged mice against a nematode parasite was not sufficiently induced to promote AAMacs.

Cytokine elevation in the mouse small intestine at the early stage of infection with the gastrointestinal parasite Heligmosomoides polygyrus.

To eliminate pathogens, the initiation of an appropriate immune response is critical. When the gastrointestinal nematode, Heligmosomoides polygyrus (Hp), invades the small intestine, a type-2 cytokine response is initiated; however, this response is not sufficient to clear the infection, and chronic infection can ensue. In this study, the host defense against Hp was investigated in mice with a focus on the role of CD4+ T cells. To this end, tissues from the small intestine and mesenteric lymph node (MLN) were collected every day from just after infection until Day 5 because many previous studies have described the later stages of infection from Day 8 to Day 12, during which Hp returns to the lumen and Th2 cytokine expression reaches its peak. In this study, we focused on investigating the initiation of the type-2 immune response. Our results indicated that the larvae encysted by Day 3. Increased type-2 cytokine gene expression started in the small intestine before Day 2 and increased again on Day 5. Interferon (IFN) γ increased significantly on the second day. Flow cytometry and gene expression analysis of MLN cells revealed that CD4+ T cells were not activated until Day 4. These results suggested that innate immune cells in submucosa are activated immediately after infection, but CD4+ T cells accumulate in the cyst zone later. In addition, IFNγ may have an important role in converting type-2 cytokine-producing cells from innate cells to CD4+ T cells.

Effects of Sodium Chloride on Oviposition Behavior of Aedes albopictus.

This study examined the effectiveness of sodium chloride (NaCl) as an oviposition repellent for Aedes albopictus females. Oviposition responses to 0.5%, 0.75%, 1.00%, 1.25%, and 1.5% solutions of pure NaCl were evaluated over 8 days using ovitraps. Gravid Ae. albopictus females showed a reduction in oviposition at all NaCl concentrations. Compared with controls, the inhibition of oviposition ranged from 84.4% to 97.0% at concentrations above 0.5% NaCl. We also show that NaCl is effective for oviposition control of gravid females when laying their overwintering eggs. Our results showed that a 0.5% NaCl solution is effective for use as an oviposition repellent against Ae. albopictus females.

Regulation of type 2 diabetes by helminth-induced Th2 immune response.

Helminth-induced type 2 cytokines increase the number of regulatory T cells and alternatively activated macrophages, resulting in modulation of the host-immune system. Studies on these parasite-induced immunoregulatory mechanisms might contribute to the development of new therapies for inflammatory diseases, including type 2 diabetes (T2D). Previous studies have suggested that progression of obesity-associated metabolic abnormalities is under pathophysiological control of CD4+ T cells. Glucose absorption through the intestinal epithelium reduced after infection in a STAT-6-dependent manner. In this study, we investigated whether infection with the gastrointestinal nematode parasite Heligmosomoides polygyrus (Hp) can modulate T2D-associated pathology in a mouse model (KK-Ay/TaJcl). KK-Ay/TaJcl mice were inoculated with infective third-stage Hp larvae and studied at Day 8 following infection. Uninfected KK-Ay/TaJcl mice showed high blood glucose levels even 120 min after administration of glucose by IP injection. However, it was significantly improved in the infected group. HOMA-IR, fat accumulation and FAS gene expression in the liver were significantly decreased by Hp infection. GLUT2 gene expression in this group was significantly lower than that in the uninfected diabetic mice, which might be related to the decrease in glucose absorption in the parasite-infected intestine. In conclusion, helminth-induced type 2 immune responses might contribute to T2D disease control.

Mechanisms Involved in the Development of the Chronic Gastrointestinal Syndrome in Nonhuman Primates after Total-Body Irradiation with Bone Marrow Shielding.

In this study, nonhuman primates (NHPs) exposed to lethal doses of total body irradiation (TBI) within the gastrointestinal (GI) acute radiation syndrome range, sparing ∼5% of bone marrow (TBI-BM5), were used to evaluate the mechanisms involved in development of the chronic GI syndrome. TBI increased mucosal permeability in the jejunum (12-14 Gy) and proximal colon (13-14 Gy). TBI-BM5 also impaired mucosal barrier function at doses ranging from 10-12.5 Gy in both small intestine and colon. Timed necropsies of NHPs at 6-180 days after 10 Gy TBI-BM5 showed that changes in small intestine preceded those in the colon. Chronic GI syndrome in NHPs is characterized by continued weight loss and intermittent GI syndrome symptoms. There was a long-lasting decrease in jejunal glucose absorption coincident with reduced expression of the sodium-linked glucose transporter. The small intestine and colon showed a modest upregulation of several different pro-inflammatory mediators such as NOS-2. The persistent inflammation in the post-TBI-BM5 period was associated with a long-lasting impairment of mucosal restitution and a reduced expression of intestinal and serum levels of alkaline phosphatase (ALP). Mucosal healing in the postirradiation period is dependent on sparing of stem cell crypts and maturation of crypt cells into appropriate phenotypes. At 30 days after 10 Gy TBI-BM5, there was a significant downregulation in the gene and protein expression of the stem cell marker Lgr5 but no change in the gene expression of enterocyte or enteroendocrine lineage markers. These data indicate that even a threshold dose of 10 Gy TBI-BM5 induces a persistent impairment of both mucosal barrier function and restitution in the GI tract and that ALP may serve as a biomarker for these events. These findings have important therapeutic implications for the design of medical countermeasures.

Software development for estimating the concentration of radioactive cesium in the skeletal muscles of cattle from blood samples.

The 2011 earthquake severely damaged the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (FNPP), resulting in the release of large quantities of radioactive material into the environment. The deposition of these radionuclides in rice straw as livestock feed led to the circulation of contaminated beef in the market. Based on the safety concern of the consumers, a reliable method for estimating concentrations of radioactive cesium in muscle tissue is needed. In this study, we analyzed the concentrations of radioactive cesium in the blood and skeletal muscle of 88 cattle, and detected a linear correlation between them. We then developed software that can be used to estimate radioactive cesium concentrations in muscle tissue from blood samples. Distribution of this software to the livestock production field would allow us to easily identify high-risk cattle, which would be beyond the safety regulation, before shipping out to the market. This software is planned to be released as freeware. This software would contribute to food safety, and aid the recovery of the livestock industry from the damage creacted by the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami.

Cesium radioactivity in peripheral blood is linearly correlated to that in skeletal muscle: analyses of cattle within the evacuation zone of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant.

The accident at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (FNPP) released a large amount of radioactive substances into the environment. Furthermore, beef contaminated with radioactive cesium above the 500 Bq/kg safety standard was circulated in the food chain in 2011. Japanese consumers remain concerned about the safety of radioactively contaminated food. In our previous study, we detected a linear correlation between radioactive cesium ((137) Cs) activity in blood and muscle around 500 to 2500 Bq/kg in cattle. However, it was unclear whether the correlation was maintained at a lower radioactivity close to the current safety standard of 100 Bq/kg. In this study, we evaluated 17 cattle in the FNPP evacuation zone that had a (137) Cs blood level less than 10 Bq/kg. The results showed a linear correlation between blood (137) Cs and muscle (137) Cs (Y = 28.0X, R(2) = 0.590) at low radioactivity concentration, indicating that cesium radioactivity in the muscle can be estimated from blood radioactivity. This technique would be useful in detecting high-risk cattle before they enter the market, and will contribute to food safety.

Orally administered rutin inhibits the gene expression of Th2 cytokines in the gut and lung in aged mice.

Rutin is one of the flavonoids derived from plants such as buckwheat and is well known as a powerful antioxidant. To determine whether dietary rutin could modulate mucosal immunity, we examined the gene expression of Th1/Th2 cytokines and the receptors in the gut and lung. Aged (18 months old, 18 M) C3H/HeN female mice were orally administered rutin for 10 days. The small intestine and lung were taken and analyzed by real-time PCR for gene expression. Interleukin (IL)-13 and IL-13Rα2 gene expression was significantly low (P<0.05 respectively) in the small intestine of aged rutin-fed mice. Meanwhile, there was no change in interferon γ gene expression between control and rutin-fed mice. IL-13 gene expression was also downregulated in the lung. To examine the mechanism of the inhibitory effect of rutin on Th2 cytokines in aged mice, intestinal nitric oxide synthase (NOS) expression was evaluated. Rutin inhibited inducible NOS (NOS2) gene expression, but not neuronal NOS and endothelial NOS. Gene analysis of cells collected from the small intestine by laser capture dissection revealed that NOS2 expression was significantly inhibited in crypt regions. Thus, rutin might be effective against a Th2-dominant profile through NOS2 inhibition in aged mice.

Intestinal inflammation caused by magnesium deficiency alters basal and oxidative stress-induced intestinal function.

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of magnesium deficiency on small intestinal morphology and function. Rats were assigned to 4 groups and placed on magnesium sufficient or deficient diet for 1 or 3 weeks. Infiltration of neutrophils and mucosal injury were assessed in stained sections of small intestine. Magnesium deficiency alone induced a significant increase in neutrophil infiltration and increased vascular ICAM-1 expression, in the absence of changes in mucosal injury or expression of proinflammatory mediators. Magnesium deficiency was associated with hyposecretory epithelial cell responses and vascular macromolecular leak in the small intestine and lung, which was attributed partly to reduced expression of NOS-3. To determine the effect of hypomagnesmia on the intestinal responses to a known oxidative stress, groups of rats were randomized to either sham operation or superior mesenteric artery occlusion for 10 (non-injurious) or 30 (injurious) minutes followed by a 1- or 4-hour reperfusion period. In response to mesenteric ischemia/reperfusion, deficient rats showed exaggerated PMN influx, but similar mucosal injury. Intestinal ischemia in sufficient animals induced vascular macromolecular leak in the small intestine and lung at 4 hours of reperfusion, with levels similar to those observed in untreated deficient rats. Acute magnesium repletion of deficient rats 24 h before surgery attenuated the exaggerated inflammation in deficient rats. These data show that magnesium deficiency induced a subclinical inflammation in the small intestine in the absence of mucosal injury, but with significant functional changes in local and remote organs and increased sensitivity to oxidative stress.

Contribution of 5-HT2A receptor in nematode infection-induced murine intestinal smooth muscle hypercontractility.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Enteric nematode infection induces a smooth muscle hypercontractility that depends on interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-13 activation of the signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 6. Serotonin (5-HT) is involved in the physiologic regulation of gut function. The present study investigated the contribution of 5-HT and its receptors in nematode-induced intestinal smooth muscle hypercontractility. METHODS: Mice were infected with Nippostrongylus brasiliensis (N brasiliensis) or Heligmosomoides polygyrus (H polygyrus) or injected intravenously with IL-13. Segments of jejunum were suspended in organ baths, and smooth muscle responses to 5-HT were determined in the presence or absence of specific 5-HT antagonists. IL-4, IL-13, and 5-HT receptor messenger RNA expressions were determined by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS: 5-HT evoked a modest contraction of smooth muscle in wild-type (WT) mice that was unaltered by the 5-HT2A antagonist ketanserin. N brasiliensis infection induced a smooth muscle hypercontractility to 5-HT that was abolished by 5-HT(2A) antagonists but not by other 5-HT antagonists. Infection-induced up-regulation of 5-HT2A expression was correlated with the smooth muscle hypercontractility to 5-HT. The infection-induced up-regulation of 5-HT2A in WT mice was observed also in IL-4(-/-) mice but was not seen in IL-13(-/-) or STAT6(-/-) mice. In addition, smooth muscle responses to 5-HT and 5-HT2A expression in WT mice were also enhanced by IL-13 or H polygyrus infection. CONCLUSIONS: These data show that 5-HT2A is one of the molecules downstream from STAT6 activation that mediates changes in smooth muscle function. 5-HT2A represents a novel therapeutic target for modulating immune-mediated effects on intestinal motility.

Functional importance of regional differences in localized gene expression of receptors for IL-13 in murine gut.

IL-13 induces a STAT6-dependent hypercontractility of intestinal smooth muscle that is mediated by binding to the IL-13Ralpha1 component of the type 2 IL-4R that is linked to STAT6. IL-13 also binds to the IL-13Ralpha2 that is not linked to STAT6 and functions to limit the effects of IL-13 in vivo. In this study we assessed the contributions of regional and cellular differences in the distribution of the IL-13R components to the physiological regulation of smooth muscle function in wild-type mice and mice deficient in STAT6 or IL-13Ralpha2. The expression of IL-13 and IL-13Ralpha2 was higher in colon than in small intestine. Laser capture microdissection of specific cell types revealed that the expression of IL-13Ralpha2 was higher in the smooth muscle layer compared with levels in the epithelial cells of the mucosa. In contrast, there was a uniform distribution of IL-13alpha1 in smooth muscle, epithelia, and myenteric neurons. The significant hypercontractility of smooth muscle in mice deficient in IL-13Ralpha2, but not in STAT6, shows the physiological importance of IL-13 binding to IL-13Ralpha2. The pronounced differences in the expression of IL-13Ralpha2 suggest that the gut has developed sophisticated mechanisms for controlling the physiological and pathophysiological activities of IL-13.

Immune regulation of protease-activated receptor-1 expression in murine small intestine during Nippostrongylus brasiliensis infection.

Infection with gastrointestinal nematodes exerts profound effects on both immune and physiological responses of the host. Helminth infection induces a hypercontractility of intestinal smooth muscle that is dependent on the Th2 cytokines, IL-4 and IL-13, and may contribute to worm expulsion. Protease-activated receptors (PARs) are expressed throughout the gut, and activation of PAR-1 was observed in asthma, a Th2-driven pathology. In the current study we investigated the physiologic and immunologic regulation of PAR-1 in the murine small intestine, specifically 1) the effect of PAR-1 agonists on small intestinal smooth muscle contractility, 2) the effects of Nippostrongylus brasiliensis infection on PAR-1 responses, 3) the roles of IL-13 and IL-4 in N. brasiliensis infection-induced alterations in PAR-1 responses, and 4) the STAT6 dependence of these responses. We demonstrate that PAR-1 activation induces contraction of murine intestinal smooth muscle that is enhanced during helminth infection. This hypercontractility is associated with an elevated expression of PAR-1 mRNA and protein. N. brasiliensis-induced changes in PAR-1 function and expression were seen in IL-4-deficient mice, but not in IL-13- or STAT6-deficient mice, indicating the dependence of IL-13 on the STAT6 signaling pathway independent of IL-4.

Localized multigene expression patterns support an evolving Th1/Th2-like paradigm in response to infections with Toxoplasma gondii and Ascaris suum.

Human infectious diseases have been studied in pigs because the two species have common microbial, parasitic, and zoonotic organisms, but there has been no systematic evaluation of cytokine gene expression in response to infectious agents in porcine species. In this study, pigs were inoculated with two clinically and economically important parasites, Toxoplasma gondii and Ascaris suum, and gene expression in 11 different tissues for 20 different swine Th1/Th2-related cytokines, cytokine receptors, and markers of immune activation were evaluated by real-time PCR. A generalized Th1-like pattern of gene expression was evident in pigs infected with T. gondii, along with an increased anti-inflammatory gene expression pattern during the recovery phase of the infection. In contrast, an elevated Th2-like pattern was expressed during the period of expulsion of A. suum fourth-stage larvae from the small intestine of pigs, along with low-level Th1-like and anti-inflammatory cytokine gene expression. Prototypical immune and physiological markers of infection were observed in bronchial alveolar lavage cells, small intestinal smooth muscle, and epithelial cells. This study validated the use of a robust quantitative gene expression assay to detect immune and inflammatory markers at multiple host tissue sites, enhanced the definition of two important swine diseases, and supported the use of swine as an experimental model for the study of immunity to infectious agents relevant to humans.

Ascaris suum: cDNA microarray analysis of 4th stage larvae (L4) during self-cure from the intestine.

There is spontaneous cure of a large portion of Ascaris suum 4th-stage larvae (L4) from the jejunum of infected pigs between 14 and 21 days after inoculation (DAI). Those L4 that remain in the jejunum continue to develop while those that have moved to the ileum are eventually expelled from the intestines. Although increases in intestinal mucosal mast cells and changes in local host immunity are coincidental with spontaneous cure, the population of L4 that continue to develop in the jejunum may counteract host protective mechanisms by the differential production of factors related to parasitism. To this end, a cDNA library was constructed from L4 isolated from pig jejunum at 21 DAI, and 93% of 1920 original clones containing a single amplicon in the range 400-1500 bp were verified by gel electrophoresis and printed onto glass slides for microarray analysis. Fluorescent probes were prepared from total RNA isolated from: (1) 3rd stage-larvae from lung at 7 DAI, (L3); (2) L4 from jejunum at 14 DAI (L4-14-J); (3) L4 from jejunum at 21 DAI (L4-21-J); (4) L4 from ileum at 21 DAI (L4-21-I, and; (5) adults (L5). Cy3-labeled L3, L4-14-J, L4-21-I and L5 cDNA, and Cy5-labeled L4-21-J cDNA were simultaneously used to screen the printed arrays containing the L4-21-J-derived cDNA library. Several clones showed consistent differential gene expression over two separate experiments and were grouped into 3 distinct transcription patterns. The data showed that sequences from muscle actin and myosin, ribosomal protein L11, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase and the flavoprotein subunit of succinate dehydrogenase were highly expressed in L4-21-J, but not in L4-21-I; as were a collection of un-annotated genes derived from a worm body wall-hypodermis library, and a testes germinal zone tissue library. These results suggest that only actively developing A. suum L4 are destined to parasitize the host and successfully neutralize host protective responses.