Exploring perspectives on vaccinations delivered in complementary non-clinical settings and by non-physician healthcare professionals: A qualitative interview study.

OBJECTIVE: To understand perspectives on vaccine administration at complementary sites (such as pharmacies, mobile clinics, and pop-up clinics) by non-physician healthcare providers (NPHPs), and the policies/barriers surrounding administration. METHODS: We performed interviews with healthcare providers (HCPs) and vaccination policy experts to elicit perspectives on including vaccination program scope, facilitators and barriers to NPHPs administering vaccines, and recommendations for improvement of vaccine administration. Eligible participants were required to either work directly in vaccination administration or work in vaccination policy. RESULTS: Thirty-eight participants completed interviews. Participants reported that US individuals have a positive view of vaccination at complementary sites and by NPHPs, especially since the COVID-19 pandemic, where vaccination was often performed by NPHPs at complementary sites. Concerns expressed by participants included language barriers, out-of-pocket costs, and mistrust among marginalized communities. Participants described the complexity of state and local regulations, particularly scope of practice laws, as a barrier to implementation of NPHP vaccination programs at complementary sites. CONCLUSIONS: NPHPs and vaccination advocates report that complementary sites represent a potentially important step to ensuring broader, more equitable vaccination service in the US.

What clinic closure reveals about care for drug-resistant TB: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: There have been calls for "person-centered" approaches to drug-resistant tuberculosis (DR-TB) care. In 2020, Charles James Hospital in South Africa, which incorporated person-centered care, was closed. Patients were referred mid-course to a centralized, tertiary hospital, providing an opportunity to examine person-centered DR-TB and HIV care from the perspective of patients who lost access to it. METHODS: The impact of transfer was explored through qualitative interviews performed using standard methods. Analysis involved grounded theory; interviews were assessed for theme and content. RESULTS: After switching to the centralized site, patients reported being unsatisfied with losing access to a single clinic and pharmacy where DR-TB, HIV and chronic disease care were integrated. Patients also reported a loss of care continuity; at the decentralized site there was a single, familiar clinician whereas the centralized site had multiple, changing clinicians and less satisfactory communication. Additionally, patients reported more disease-related stigma and less respectful treatment, noting the loss of a "special place" for DR-TB treatment. CONCLUSION: By focusing on a DR-TB clinic closure, we uncovered aspects of person-centered care that were critical to people living with DR-TB and HIV. These perspectives can inform how care for DR-TB is operationalized to optimize treatment retention and effectiveness.

Stem cell research in California: the game is on.

The California Initiative embodied in Proposition 71 was designed to boost embryonic stem cell research and its translation into cell therapies in the face of federal restrictions on such research. With funding starting to flow, the stem cell revolution is now underway.

Transforming entomology to adapt to global concerns: 2021 student debates.

The 2021 Student Debates of the Entomological Society of America (ESA) were held at the Annual Meeting in Denver, CO. The event was organized by the Student Debates Subcommittee (SDS) of the Student Affairs Committee (SAC). The theme of the 2021 Student Debates was "Transforming Entomology to Adapt to Global Concerns", with 3 topics. Each topic had an unbiased introduction and 2 teams. The debate topics were (i) Nonnative insect introduction is an ethical approach for counteracting proliferation and overpopulation of consumers, (ii) What is the best technology to control undesirable insect pests in urban and agricultural settings? and (iii) Compared to other solutions, like plant-based diets, insect farming is the best method to address rising human global food and nutrient supply demands. Unbiased introduction speakers and teams had approximately 6 months to prepare for their presentations.

Towards credible, evidence-based environmental rating ecolabels for consumer products: A proposed framework.

Environmental rating ecolabels are a new generation of ecolabels. They are intended to enable consumers to compare the environmental impacts of multiple products and make more sustainable consumption choices. Falling outside of the three types defined in the ISO 14020 environmental label and declarations series, the recent proliferation of these business-to-consumer communication instruments has resulted in the creation of a plethora of methodologies to derive product performance ratings. Interest from consumers wanting more information on the products they purchase, as well as the promise of policy instruments aiming to increase transparency and combat greenwashing, are fuelling further multiplication of schemes. A move towards more credible, evidence-based environmental rating ecolabels is therefore urgently needed to promote assessment based on scientific understanding, gain consumer trust, and realise policy objectives. We propose a framework based on four core principles - i) relevance, ii) scientific robustness, iii) trust and transparency, and iv) feasibility (scalability, affordability) - with 18 guidelines that can be followed by rating scheme developers. We characterise the rise of environmental rating ecolabels in geographical Europe and build an inventory of 33 existing schemes, at various stages of development and implementation, to which we apply the framework. This reveals the potential for significant improvement in current schemes, indicating important areas for development. The framework provides a valuable guide for the development of new schemes or an evaluation grid for existing initiatives.

A novel life cycle assessment and life cycle costing framework for carbon fibre-reinforced composite materials in the aviation industry.

Purpose: Carbon fibre-reinforced composite materials offer superior mechanical properties and lower weight than conventional metal products. However, relatively, little is known about the environmental impacts and economic costs associated with composite products displacing conventional metal products. The purpose of this study is to develop an integrated life cycle assessment and life cycle costing framework for composite materials in the aviation industry. Methods: An integrated life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle costing (LCC) framework has been developed. The displacement of a conventional aluminium door for an aircraft by a composite door is presented as an example of the use of this framework. A graphical visualisation tool is proposed to model the integrated environmental and economic performances of this displacement. LCA and LCC models for composite applications are developed accordingly. The environmental hotspots are identified, and the sensitivity of the environmental impact results to the different composite waste treatment routes is performed. Subsequently, the research suggests a learning curve to analyse the unit price for competitive mass production. Sensitivity analysis and Monte Carlo simulation have been applied to demonstrate the cost result changes caused by data uncertainty. Results: Energy consumption was the hotspot, and the choice of composite waste treatment routes had a negligible effect on the LCA outcomes. Concerning the costs, the most significant cost contribution for the unit door production was labour. The future door production cost was decreased by about 29% based on the learning curve theory. The uncertainties associated with the variables could lead to variations in the production cost of up to about 16%. The comparison between the two doors shows that the composite door had higher potential environmental impacts and cost compared to the conventional aluminium door during the production stage. However, the composite door would have better environmental and financial performance if a weight reduction of 47% was achieved in future designs. Conclusions: The proposed framework and relevant analysis models were applied through a case study in the aerospace industry, creating a site-specific database for the community to support material selection and product development. The graphical tool was proved to be useful in representing a graphical visualisation comparison based on the integration of the LCA and LCC results of potential modifications to the composite door against the reference door, providing understandable information to the decision-makers. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11367-023-02164-y.

Coronal shear fractures of the distal humerus managed according to the Modified Dubberley Classification System.

BACKGROUND: Coronal shear fractures of the capitellum and trochlea are relatively uncommon and can be challenging to treat because of variable articular comminution and poor bone stock. Classification is valuable to help guide surgical decision making and prognosis. The aim of this study was to present a large series of coronal shear fractures treated according to the Modified Dubberley Classification System (MDCS). METHODS: Forty-five patients with a coronal shear fracture were followed up (12-93 months, mean: 28 months) after surgical intervention. Fractures were classified according to the MDCS by 3 observers, and outcome data collected included Oxford elbow score (OES), visual analog pain score (VAS), range of motion, complications, and radiographic findings. RESULTS: There were 10 type 1, 12 type 2, 8 type 3, and 15 type 4 fractures. There were 26 subtype B fractures (posterior comminution). A total of 37 patients underwent open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF) and 8 primary arthroplasty. The median OES and VAS were 43(16-48) and 2 (0-9), respectively. Median flexion extension arc was 125° (range, 70°-140°). There was no significant difference in OES, VAS, or range of motion according to fracture type (types 1-4), subtype (type a or b), or treatment method (arthroplasty vs. ORIF). The overall complication and reoperation rates were 31% and 33%, respectively. A total of 75% of complications occurred in type 3 and 4 fractures, and there was a nonsignificant trend toward higher complication rate in type B fractures than type A fractures (34% vs. 16%, P = .19). Patients with a type B fracture who underwent screw-only fixation had a significantly lower OES and higher complication rate compared with when they had combined plating with screws (OES, P = .03; complications P = .04) and compared with when an arthroplasty was performed (OES, P = .05; complications P = .04). CONCLUSION: Consistently good outcomes can be achieved by classification and management according to the MDCS. It is recommended that type B fractures undergo combined plate and screw fixation and that type 4 fractures should be considered for arthroplasty because of the higher risk of complications with ORIF.

Elbow arthroplasty is safe for the management of simple open distal humeral fractures.

BACKGROUND: Elbow arthroplasty (EA) is an established technique for the treatment of select distal humeral fractures, yet little data exists regarding the safety and outcome of EA in the presence of an open distal humeral fracture where the risk of periprosthetic infection is an even greater concern. We hypothesized that EA does not carry an increased risk of infection or other postoperative complications when performed for simple open distal humeral fractures. METHODS: Seventeen patients underwent total EA (n = 9) or hemiarthroplasty (n = 8) for an open distal humeral fracture. The open fracture component was classified according to the Orthopaedic Trauma Society system as "simple" or "complex." Outcome measures collected included the Mayo Elbow Performance Score (MEPS), range of motion, complications, and reoperations. Patients who underwent primary débridement and implantation were compared with those who underwent preliminary débridement procedures and subsequent staged arthroplasty. A systematic review of the existing literature was performed to analyze other reported cases and contextualize our findings. RESULTS: The mean follow-up was 46 months (range, 12-138 months). All fractures were multifragmentary and intra-articular. Sixteen patients had a "simple" open fracture and 1 had a "complex" fracture. The overall mean MEPS was 83 (range, 30-100; standard deviation ± 17), with a mean flexion-extension arc of 96°. Patients who underwent primary débridement and implantation demonstrated a higher mean flexion arc (116° vs. 79°, P = .02) than those who underwent staged arthroplasty. The mean MEPS was not significantly different between the groups (90 vs. 78, P = .12). Complications included asymptomatic ulna component loosening (n = 1), joint instability (n = 1), and symptomatic heterotopic ossification (n = 3). There were no deep or superficial infections recorded. CONCLUSION: EA is safe and effective when performed for simple open distal humeral fractures. Primary débridement and implantation may offer functional benefits over a staged approach.

Handball-Related Head and Neck Trauma: An Analysis of the 2000-2019 National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS) Database.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to report on the characteristics of head and neck injuries secondary to the sport of Handball in the United States. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This is a 20-year cross-sectional study that was conducted using the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System. Handball injuries were included in the study if they involved the head, face, eyeball, mouth, ear, or neck. The primary study predictor was age group. The study outcome was the type of injury (diagnosis) and the location of injury. Chi-squared testing (χ2) was performed to compare categorical variables. RESULTS: Males composed more than three-fourths of the sample of patients (76.2%). White patients (38.7%) composed the most common racial group. The most common anatomical location injured was the head (45.9%). The most common primary diagnoses were contusion/abrasion (22.5%). Children were most likely to injure their head (P < 0.01) among all the anatomic regions. Young adults were least likely to injure their eyeball (P < 0.05). In contrast to children, adults were least likely to injure their head (P < 0.01). In contrast to young adults, adults were most likely to injure their eyeball (P < 0.01). With regards to types of injuries, Children were least likely to incur lacerations (P < 0.01). In contrast, young adults were most likely to incur lacerations (P < 0.01); however, young adults were least likely to suffer from contusions/abrasions (P < 0.01). In contrast to young adults, adults were most likely to suffer from contusions/abrasions (P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Contusions/abrasions and brain damage were the two most common injuries in this sport. The head was the most commonly injured anatomical region. Both the type of injury and the anatomical location of injury that occur during the practice of handball significantly vary depending on the age group involved in the game.

Quantitative Proteomic Analysis Reveals Yeast Cell Wall Products Influence the Serum Proteome Composition of Broiler Chickens.

With an ever-growing market and continual financial pressures associated with the prohibition of antibiotic growth promoters, the poultry industry has had to rapidly develop non-antibiotic alternatives to increase production yields. A possible alternative is yeast and its derivatives, such as the yeast cell wall (YCW), which have been proposed to confer selected beneficial effects on the host animal. Here, the effect of YCW supplementation on the broiler chicken was investigated using a quantitative proteomic strategy, whereby serum was obtained from three groups of broilers fed with distinct YCW-based Gut Health Products (GHP) or a control basal diet. Development of a novel reagent enabled application of ProteoMiner™ technology for sample preparation and subsequent comparative quantitative proteomic analysis revealed proteins which showed a significant change in abundance (n = 167 individual proteins; p < 0.05); as well as proteins which were uniquely identified (n = 52) in, or absent (n = 37) from, GHP-fed treatment groups versus controls. An average of 7.1% of proteins showed changes in abundance with GHP supplementation. Several effects of these GHPs including immunostimulation (via elevated complement protein detection), potential alterations in the oxidative status of the animal (e.g., glutathione peroxidase and catalase), stimulation of metabolic processes (e.g., differential abundance of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase), as well as evidence of a possible hepatoprotective effect (attenuated levels of serum α-glutathione s-transferase) by one GHP feed supplement, were observed. It is proposed that specific protein detection may be indicative of GHP efficacy to stimulate broiler immune status, i.e., may be biomarkers of GHP efficacy. In summary, this work has developed a novel technology for the preparation of high dynamic range proteomic samples for LC-MS/MS analysis, is part of the growing area of livestock proteomics and, importantly, provides evidential support for beneficial effects that GHP supplementation has on the broiler chicken.

Yeast Mannan-Rich Fraction Modulates Endogenous Reactive Oxygen Species Generation and Antibiotic Sensitivity in Resistant E. coli.

Mannan-rich fraction (MRF) isolated from Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been studied for its beneficial impact on animal intestinal health. Herein, we examined how MRF affected the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), impacting antibiotic susceptibility in resistant Escherichia coli through the modulation of bacterial metabolism. The role of MRF in effecting proteomic change was examined using a proteomics-based approach. The results showed that MRF, when combined with bactericidal antibiotic treatment, increased ROS production in resistant E. coli by 59.29 ± 4.03% compared to the control (p ≤ 0.05). We further examined the effect of MRF alone and in combination with antibiotic treatment on E. coli growth and explored how MRF potentiates bacterial susceptibility to antibiotics via proteomic changes in key metabolic pathways. Herein we demonstrated that MRF supplementation in the growth media of ampicillin-resistant E. coli had a significant impact on the normal translational control of the central metabolic pathways, including those involved in the glycolysis-TCA cycle (p ≤ 0.05).

Impact of humeral and glenoid component variations on range of motion in reverse geometry total shoulder arthroplasty: a standardized computer model study.

BACKGROUND: Multiple modifications of reverse total shoulder arthroplasty (RTSA) since the first Grammont design have developed to improve range of motion (ROM) and avoid notching. The effect of these changes in shoulder kinematics and the best compromise for ROM is still under debate. This computer simulation study evaluates the influence of humeral design, humeral neck-shaft angle (NSA), glenoid lateralization, and glenoid eccentricity on ROM of RTSA. METHODS: We created a 3-dimensional computer model from computed tomography scans of 13 patients with primary osteoarthritis simulating implantation of a standardized reverse shoulder arthroplasty. We analyzed the effect of 4 different variables on impingement-free ROM: humeral design (inlay vs. semi-inlay vs. onlay), humeral NSA (135° vs. 145° vs. 155°), glenoid lateralization, and glenoid eccentricity on ROM. RESULTS: The use of different humeral stem designs did not have a significant effect on total global ROM. Reducing NSA demonstrated a significant increase in adduction, and external and internal rotation in adduction, whereas a decrease in abduction and external rotation in abduction. Glenosphere lateralization was the most effective method for increasing total global ROM (P < .0001); however, extreme lateralization (+12 mm) did not show significant benefit compared with moderate lateralization (+4 mm). Glenosphere eccentricity increased only adduction and internal rotation in adduction. CONCLUSION: Only glenoid lateralization has a significant effect on increasing total global ROM in RTSA. The use of the semi-inlay 145° model combined with 4 mm lateralization and 2 mm inferior eccentricity represents the middle ground and the most universal approach in RTSA.

Utility of bedside leucocyte esterase testing to rule out septic arthritis.

INTRODUCTION: Suspected septic arthritis is a common presentation to EDs. The underlying diagnosis is often non-infective pathology. Differentiating between aetiologies is difficult. A bedside test with high negative predictive value (NPV) may allow safe discharge of patients, reduce the time in the ED, hospital admission and associated costs. This study aims to evaluate the NPV of bedside leucocyte esterase (LE) in the assessment of these patients. METHODS: A prospective multicentre observational study of ED adult patients referred to orthopaedics with suspected native joint septic arthritis between October 2015 and April 2016. At three hospital sites in the Bristol region, the results of the LE test exposed to aspirated synovial fluid were recorded along with Gram stain, culture, haematinics and length of stay. A positive LE test was considered 2+ or 3+ leucocytes based on the test strip colour. Data were analysed to establish sensitivity, specificity, NPV and positive predictive value (PPV) against the gold standard 48-hour culture. We determined the potential number of inpatient bed-days that might be avoided using this bedside test. RESULTS: Eighty patients underwent joint aspiration. Five cases had positive 48-hour culture. All (5/5) infected cases showed ≥2+ LE, sensitivity of 100% (95% CI 47.8% to 100%) while the Gram stain was positive in only one case (sensitivity 20%, 95% CI 0.51% to 71.6%). Twenty-three LE were read negative or 1+, all with negative 48-hour culture results, resulting in an NPV of 100% (95% CI 82.1% to 1.00%) for a negative LE test. Specificity of a positive LE test was 30.7% (95% CI 20.5% to 42.45%) with PPV of 8.77% (95% CI 7.64% to 10.1%). It was calculated that 57 orthopaedic bed-days could have potentially been saved by immediately discharging those with a negative LE test. CONCLUSIONS: LE point-of-care testing for suspected septic arthritis of native joints has a high NPV. Implementation of LE may facilitate more rapid discharge of patients with negative results. This test has the potential to reduce diagnostic uncertainty and costs to the healthcare system.

BiPOD arthroscopically assisted bidirectional stabilisation technique for high-grade acromioclavicular joint injury: two-year clinical and radiological outcomes.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the intermediate-term clinical and radiological outcomes for acute, unstable acromioclavicular joint (ACJ) injuries treated with the arthroscopically assisted BiPOD stabilisation technique. METHODS: Twenty-three patients who sustained acute, unstable ACJ injuries were included in this prospective study. We recorded demographics, injury classification, time to surgery, clinical scores, radiological outcomes and complications; each patient completed a minimum of 2 years post-operative observation. RESULTS: Mean follow-up was 26 months (range, 24-34). Clinical outcomes scores demonstrated good 2-year results: relative Constant score, 97.9/100; ACJ Index, 89.4/100; Subjective Shoulder Value, 92.4/100 and Taft = 11.1/12. Final C-C distance showed a mean of 0.7 mm (SD ± 1.8 mm) at 2 years. Complication rate was 9%. CONCLUSION: The BiPOD technique shows excellent, reliable intermediate-term results with a favourable complication rate compared to existing techniques; it provides a comprehensive surgical option for the stabilisation of acute ACJ injuries restoring both vertical and horizontal stability.

LC-MS proteomic profiling of Caco-2 human intestinal cells exposed to the copper-chelating agent, triethylenetetramine: A preliminary study.

Homeostasis of metal micronutrients such as copper is tightly regulated to ensure deficiency does not occur while restricting damage resulting from excess accumulation. Using LC-MS the effect on the proteome of intestinal Caco-2 cells of exposure to the chelator triethylenetetramine (TETA) was investigated. Continuous exposure of TETA at 25 µM to Caco-2 cells caused decreased cell yields and morphological changes. These effects were reversed when cells were no longer exposed to TETA. Quantitative proteomic analysis identified 957 mostly low-fold differentially expressed proteins, 41 of these returned towards control Caco-2 expression following recovery. Proteins exhibiting this "reciprocal" behaviour included upregulated deoxyhypusine hydroxylase (DOHH, 15.69- fold), a protein essential for eIF-5A factor hypsuination, a post translational modification responsible for eIF-5A maturation, which in turn is responsible for translation elongation. Exposure to TETA also resulted in 87 proteins, the expression of which was stable and remained differentially expressed following recovery. This study helps to elucidate the stable and transient proteomic effects of TETA exposure in intestinal cells.

Nanomaterials Derived from Fungal Sources-Is It the New Hype?

Greener alternatives to synthetic polymers are constantly being investigated and sought after. Chitin is a natural polysaccharide that gives structural support to crustacean shells, insect exoskeletons, and fungal cell walls. Like cellulose, chitin resides in nanosized structural elements that can be isolated as nanofibers and nanocrystals by various top-down approaches, targeted at disintegrating the native construct. Chitin has, however, been largely overshadowed by cellulose when discussing the materials aspects of the nanosized components. This Perspective presents a thorough overview of chitin-related materials research with an analytical focus on nanocomposites and nanopapers. The red line running through the text emphasizes the use of fungal chitin that represents several advantages over the more popular crustacean sources, particularly in terms of nanofiber isolation from the native matrix. In addition, many ß-glucans are preserved in chitin upon its isolation from the fungal matrix, enabling new horizons for various engineering solutions.

Improved identification of unstable acromioclavicular joint injuries in a clinical population using the acromial center line to dorsal clavicle radiographic measurement.

BACKGROUND: Accurate classification and subsequent management of acromioclavicular (AC) joint injuries remains a contentious topic. The updated Rockwood classification acknowledges "stable IIIA" and "unstable IIIB" injuries, a watershed accepted by ISAKOS and important in guiding clinical management. Traditionally, the coracoclavicular distance is used to classify these injuries, despite well-documented limitations. This study aimed to evaluate displacement in AC joint injuries by measuring both coracoclavicular (CC) distance and the newly proposed acromial center line to dorsal clavicle (AC-DC) distance, in a cohort of patients, and correlate the results between the 2 measurements and relationship to Rockwood grade. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ninety consecutive cases of AC joint injury were evaluated radiographically for Rockwood classification, CC distance on anteroposterior radiographs, and AC-DC distance on Alexander view radiographs. Inter- and intraobserver reliability for each measurement was calculated as well as correlation between the 2 measurement types and the degree to which each measurement accurately represented the Rockwood classification. RESULTS: Although both CC and AC-DC measurements showed very high inter- and intraobserver reliability, the CC distance systematically underestimated the degree of AC joint displacement when compared with the AC-DC measurement as the severity of injury increased, particularly in the presence of posterior horizontal displacement such as that seen in Rockwood IV injuries. CONCLUSION: The AC-DC measurement and use of the Alexander view provides the clinician with a more realistic appreciation of true AC joint displacement, especially in defining watershed cases (ie, IIIA/IIB/IV) and may better inform the decision-making process regarding management options and recommendations.

The Effectiveness of Small-group Community-based Information Sessions on Clinical Trial Recruitment for Secondary Prevention of Alzheimer's Disease.

Effective and practical recruitment strategies are needed to ensure successful recruitment into the Alzheimer disease clinical trials. To facilitate successful recruitment for the NIH-sponsored A4 (Anti-Amyloid treatment in Asymptomatic Alzheimer's disease, NCT02008357) trial for the secondary prevention of Alzheimer disease, we developed a small-group community information session to attract and recruit potential research participants. After a successful media campaign, 213 participants were screened through telephone for eligibility, identifying 127 potential participants. Participants were given the option of a traditional one-on-one recruitment session or a small-group session. One-on-one recruitment was performed for 15 participants requesting this procedure, and yielded an overall recruitment rate of 67% (n=10). Substantially more individuals (n=112, 88%) requested small-group sessions to learn about the study. After attending the small-group informational sessions, 98% of potential participants self-reported a greater understanding of the study; and the recruitment rate from these sessions was 90%. Small-group sessions not only improved recruitment success rates, but also contributed to significantly shorter median time for consent processes (20 vs. 60 min) and reduced staff time spent on persons not recruited. Small-group education programs are an effective strategy for enhancing recruitment success and facilitating practical recruitment into clinical trials with high recruitment demands.

Effect of copper on multiple successional stages of a marine fouling assemblage.

Copper based paints are used to prevent fouling on the hulls of ships. The widely documented effect of copper on hull assemblages may be primarily due to direct effects on the invertebrates themselves or indirect effects from copper absorbed into the microbial biofilm before settlement has commenced. Artificial units of habitat were exposed to varied regimes of copper to examine (1) the photosynthetic efficiency and pigments of early-colonising biofilms, and (2) subsequent macroinvertebrate assemblage change in response to the different regimes of copper. Macroinvertebrate assemblages were found to be less sensitive to the direct effects of copper than indirect effects as delivered through biofilms that have been historically exposed to copper, with some species more tolerant than others. This raises further concern for the efficacy of copper as a universal antifoulant on the hulls of ships, which may continue to assist the invasion of copper-tolerant invertebrate species.