Problems associated with mass border testing of COVID-19.

We evaluated the yield of exit screening for SARS-Cov-2 performed in order for travellers to meet entry requirements to Sweden. Among 472 people screened, no infectious case of COVID-19 was detected, while two previously known cases were redetected after having already completed isolation. Our data suggest that depending on the epidemiological situation in the area of departure, border screening can lead to very low positive predictive values and very high costs per relevant case detected.

Serological diagnostics of Lyme borreliosis: comparison of assays in twelve clinical laboratories in Northern Europe.

Lyme borreliosis (LB), caused by spirochetes belonging to the Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato complex, is the most common tick-borne infection in Europe. Laboratory diagnosis of LB is mainly based on the patients' medical history, clinical signs and symptoms in combination with detection of Borrelia-specific antibodies where indirect enzyme-linked-immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is the most widely used technique. The objective of the study was to evaluate and compare the diagnostic accuracy (sensitivities and specificities) of serological tests that are currently in use for diagnosis of LB in clinical laboratories in Northern Europe, by use of a large serum panel. The panel consisted of 195 serum samples from well-characterized and classified patients under investigation for clinically suspected LB (n = 59) including patients with Lyme neuroborreliosis, Lyme arthritis, acrodermatitis chronica atrophicans, erythema migrans or other diseases (n = 112). A total of 201 serum samples from healthy blood donors were also included. The panel (396 serum samples altogether) was sent to 12 clinical laboratories (using five different ELISA methods) as blinded for group affiliation and the laboratories were asked to perform serological analysis according to their routine procedure. The results from the study demonstrated high diagnostic concordance between the laboratories using the same diagnostic assay and lower diagnostic concordance between laboratories using different diagnostic assays. For IgG, the results were in general rather homogenous and showed an average sensitivity of 88% (range 85-91%) compared to IgM which showed lower average sensitivity of 59% (range 50-67%) and more heterogeneous results between assays and laboratories.

Diagnostic probability classification in suspected borreliosis by a novel Borrelia C6-peptide IgG1- subclass antibody test.

The tick-borne multisystemic infection caused by Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, Lyme borreliosis, or Lyme disease, occurring in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, continues to spread geographically with the expanding tick population. Despite the rising perceived risk of infection in the population, the clinical diagnosis of Borrelia infection is not always obvious and the most important laboratory test, antibody detection, has limited accuracy in diagnosing active disease. According to international guidelines, the primary serology test, which has a high sensitivity-low specificity, should, be verified using a high specificity confirmation test to improve the specificity. However, this enhancement in specificity comes at the cost of lower sensitivity. This two-step procedure is often omitted in everyday clinical practice. An optimal primary test would be one where no secondary tests for confirmation would be necessary. In the present study, the performance of a novel assay for quantitating IgG1-subclass antibodies to Borrelia C6-peptide was compared to a commercial reference assay of total IgG and IgM antibodies to Borrelia C6-peptide in the setting of a high endemic area for borreliosis. A derivation study on a retrospective clinical material was performed to compare the performance parameters and assess the discriminatory properties of the assays, followed by a prospective validation study. The IgG1-antibody assay achieved comparable summary performance parameters to those of the reference assay. The sensitivity was almost 100% while the specificity was about 50%. In a high-endemic setting, characterized by high background seropositivity of about 50% and disease prevalence of approximately 10%, antibody tests are unable to rule-in active Borrelia infection. The rule-out assessment of the methods revealed that of 1000 patients, 7 - 54 with negative results based on the reference method could have an active Borrelia infection. Such uncertainty was not found for the index test and may help improve the risk classification of patients.

The AxBioTick Study: Borrelia Species and Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus in Ticks, and Clinical Responses in Tick-Bitten Individuals on the Aland Islands, Finland.

The AxBioTick study was initiated to investigate the prevalence of ticks and tick-borne pathogens and their impact on antibody and clinical responses in tick-bitten individuals on the Aland Islands. This geographical area is hyperendemic for both Lyme borreliosis (LB) and Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE). Blood samples and ticks were collected from 100 tick-bitten volunteers. A total of 425 ticks was collected, all determined to Ixodes ricinus using molecular tools. Of them 20% contained Borrelia species, of which B. garinii and B. afzelii were most common. None contained the TBE virus (TBEV). Blood samples were drawn in conjunction with the tick bite, and eight weeks later. Sera were analyzed for Borrelia- and TBEV-specific antibodies using an ELISA and a semiquantitative antibody assay. In total 14% seroconverted in Borrelia C6IgG1, 3% in TBEV IgG, and 2% in TBEV IgM. Five participants developed clinical manifestations of LB. The high seroprevalence of both Borrelia (57%) and TBEV (52%) antibodies are likely attributed to the endemic status of the corresponding infections as well as the TBE vaccination program. Despite the similar prevalence of Borrelia spp. detected in ticks in other parts of Europe, the infection rate in this population is high. The AxBioTick study is continuing to investigate more participants and ticks for co-infections, and to characterize the dermal immune response following a tick bite.

Early administration of tocilizumab in hospitalized COVID-19 patients with elevated inflammatory markers; COVIDSTORM-a prospective, randomized, single-centre, open-label study.

OBJECTIVES: Severe COVID-19 is associated with an imbalanced immune response. We hypothesized that patients with enhanced inflammation, as demonstrated by increased levels of certain inflammatory biomarkers, would benefit from interleukin-6 blockage. METHODS: Patients hospitalized with COVID-19, hypoxemia, and at least two of four markedly elevated markers of inflammation (interleukin-6, C-reactive protein, ferritin, and/or D-dimer) were randomized for tocilizumab (TCZ) plus standard of care (SoC) or SoC alone. The primary endpoint was clinical status at day 28 assessed using a seven-category ordinal scale, and the secondary endpoints included intensive care unit admission, respiratory support, and duration of hospital admission. RESULTS: Clinical status at day 28 was significantly better in patients who received TCZ in addition to SoC compared with those who received SoC alone (p = 0.037). By then, 93% of patients who received TCZ (n = 53 of 57) and 86% of control patients (n = 25 of 29) had been discharged from the hospital. In addition, 47% of TCZ patients (n = 27 of 57) and 24% of control patients (n = 7 of 29) had resumed normal daily activities. The median length of hospitalization was 9 days (interquartile range, 7-12) in the TCZ group and 12 days (interquartile range, 9-15) in the control group (p = 0.014). DISCUSSION: In patients hospitalized with COVID-19, hypoxemia, and elevated inflammation markers, administration of TCZ in addition to SoC was associated with significantly better clinical recovery by day 28 and a shorter hospitalization compared with SoC alone.

Emerging tick-borne pathogens in the Nordic countries: A clinical and laboratory follow-up study of high-risk tick-bitten individuals.

Despite the presence of several microorganisms, other than Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (Bbsl) and TBE virus, in Ixodes ricinus ticks from the Nordic countries, data is lacking on their pathogenic potential in humans. In this study, we wanted to investigate the aetiology and clinical manifestations of tick-transmitted infections in individuals seeking medical care following a tick-bite. The sampling frame was participants of a large-scale, prospective, multi-centre, follow-up study of tick-bitten volunteers recruited in Sweden, Finland and Norway in the years 2007-2015. Participants who sought medical care during the three-month follow-up period and from whom blood samples were collected during this healthcare visit (n = 92) were tested, using PCR, for exposure to spotted fever group (SFG) Rickettsia spp., Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Babesia spp. Moreover, 86 of these individuals had two serum samples, collected three months apart, tested serologically for six tick-borne microorganisms. The selected organisms - Bbsl, SFG rickettsiae, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, TBE virus, Babesia microti and Bartonella henselae - have all been detected in field-collected ticks from the Nordic countries. Medical records were reviewed and questionnaires were completed to determine clinical manifestations. We found Lyme borreliosis to be the most common tick-transmitted infection as seen in 46 (54%) of the 86 participants with available medical records. Among the 86 participants with paired sera, serological or molecular evidence of recent exposure to other microorganisms than Bbsl could be demonstrated in eight (9%). Five participants (6%) exhibited serological evidence of recent concomitant exposure to more than one tick-borne microorganism. Clinical presentations were mild with one exception (TBE). In conclusion, our data suggest a low risk of infection with tick-borne microorganisms, other than Bbsl, in immunocompetent tick-bitten persons from the examined regions, a low occurrence of co-infection and mostly mild or no overt clinical signs of infection in immunocompetent persons exposed to the studied agents.

Neutrophil Extracellular Traps (NETs) in the Cerebrospinal Fluid Samples from Children and Adults with Central Nervous System Infections.

Neutrophils operate as part of the innate defence in the skin and may eliminate the Borrelia spirochaete via phagocytosis, oxidative bursts, and hydrolytic enzymes. However, their importance in Lyme neuroborreliosis (LNB) is unclear. Neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation, which is associated with the production of reactive oxygen species, involves the extrusion of the neutrophil DNA to form traps that incapacitate bacteria and immobilise viruses. Meanwhile, NET formation has recently been studied in pneumococcal meningitis, the role of NETs in other central nervous system (CNS) infections has previously not been studied. Here, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples from clinically well-characterised children (N = 111) and adults (N = 64) with LNB and other CNS infections were analysed for NETs (DNA/myeloperoxidase complexes) and elastase activity. NETs were detected more frequently in the children than the adults (p = 0.01). NET presence was associated with higher CSF levels of CXCL1 (p < 0.001), CXCL6 (p = 0.007), CXCL8 (p = 0.003), CXCL10 (p < 0.001), MMP-9 (p = 0.002), TNF (p = 0.02), IL-6 (p < 0.001), and IL-17A (p = 0.03). NETs were associated with fever (p = 0.002) and correlated with polynuclear pleocytosis (rs = 0.53, p < 0.0001). We show that neutrophil activation and active NET formation occur in the CSF samples of children and adults with CNS infections, mainly caused by Borrelia and neurotropic viruses. The role of NETs in the early phase of viral/bacterial CNS infections warrants further investigation.

A prospective study on the incidence of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato infection after a tick bite in Sweden and on the Åland Islands, Finland (2008-2009).

Lyme borreliosis (LB) is a common and increasing tick-borne disease in Europe. The risk of acquiring a Borrelia infection after a tick bite is not fully known. Therefore, we investigated the incidence of Borrelia infection after a bite by a Borrelia-infected tick and if the Borrelia load and/or the duration of tick-feeding influenced the risk of infection. During 2008-2009, ticks and blood samples were collected from 1546 tick-bitten persons from Sweden and the Åland Islands, Finland. Follow-up blood samples were taken 3 months after the tick bite. The duration of tick feeding was microscopically estimated and Borrelia was detected and quantified in ticks by real-time PCR. Anti-Borrelia antibodies were detected in sera using ELISA tests and immunoblot. Five percent (78/1546) of the study participants developed Borrelia infection (LB diagnosis and/or seroconversion) after a tick bite (45% bitten by Borrelia-infected ticks and 55% bitten by uninfected ticks). Of these, 33 developed LB (whereof 9 also seroconverted) while 45 participants seroconverted only. Experience of non-specific symptoms was more frequently reported by Borrelia-infected participants compared to uninfected participants. All who seroconverted removed "their" ticks significantly later than those who did not. The Borrelia load in the ticks did not explain the risk of seroconversion. Regional and sex differences in the Borrelia seroprevalence were found. The risk of developing a Borrelia infection after a bite by a Borrelia-infected tick is small but increases with the duration of tick feeding.

Can ELISPOT Be Applied to A Clinical Setting as A Diagnostic Utility for Neuroborreliosis?

The aim of this prospective study was to investigate the diagnostic performance of Borrelia (Bb)-induced interferon (IFN)-γ secretion detected by ELISPOT modified to be feasible for clinical laboratories as a supplementary test to the laboratory diagnosis of Lyme neuroborreliosis (LNB) in an endemic setting. Between 2002 and 2004, patients with symptoms of suspected clinical LNB were included in a study conducted on the Åland islands in the Finnish archipelago, which is a hyper-endemic area for Lyme borreliosis (LB). Fourteen patients with confirmed LNB and 103 patients with non-LNB were included, and the numbers of spontaneous and Bb-induced IFN-γ-secreting cells were assayed by the ELISPOT test. The ELISPOT assay showed a weak diagnostic performance with a sensitivity of 36% and a specificity of 82%. The findings in this study show that this ELISPOT-assay modified to be feasible in clinical routine laboratories is not useful as a supplementary diagnostic tool in the laboratory diagnosis of patients with clinically suspected LNB.

Cytotoxic mechanisms may play a role in the local immune response in the central nervous system in neuroborreliosis.

Aiming to investigate the role of cytotoxic mechanisms in neuroborreliosis (NB), the cytokines IL-2, IL-7, IL-10, IL-12p70, IL-15, GM-CSF and the Th17-cytokine IL-17 were analyzed in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and plasma from NB-patients. NB-patients showed increased levels in CSF compared to controls of all analyzed cytokines except IL-15 but not in plasma. Blood lymphocytes from three NB-patients showed functional cytotoxicity in response to autologous Borrelia-infected macrophages. The findings support a role for cytotoxic mechanisms in the local immune response in NB and in addition suggest an increase of IL-17.

Decreased Th1-type inflammatory cytokine expression in the skin is associated with persisting symptoms after treatment of erythema migrans.

BACKGROUND: Despite the good prognosis of erythema migrans (EM), some patients have persisting symptoms of various character and duration post-treatment. Several factors may affect the clinical outcome of EM, e.g. the early interaction between Borrelia (B.) burgdorferi and the host immune response, the B. burgdorferi genotype, antibiotic treatment as well as other clinical circumstances. Our study was designed to determine whether early cytokine expression in the skin and in peripheral blood in patients with EM is associated with the clinical outcome. METHODS: A prospective follow-up study of 109 patients with EM was conducted at the Åland Islands, Finland. Symptoms were evaluated at 3, 6, 12 and 24 months post-treatment. Skin biopsies from the EM and healthy skin were immunohistochemically analysed for expression of interleukin (IL)-4, IL-10, IL-12p70 and interferon (IFN)-γ, as well as for B. burgdorferi DNA. Blood samples were analysed for B. burgdorferi antibodies, allergic predisposition and levels of systemic cytokines. FINDINGS: None of the patients developed late manifestations of Lyme borreliosis. However, at the 6-month follow-up, 7 of 88 patients reported persisting symptoms of diverse character. Compared to asymptomatic patients, these 7 patients showed decreased expression of the Th1-associated cytokine IFN-γ in the EM biopsies (p=0.003). B. afzelii DNA was found in 48%, B. garinii in 15% and B. burgdorferi sensu stricto in 1% of the EM biopsies, and species distribution was the same in patients with and without post-treatment symptoms. The two groups did not differ regarding baseline patient characteristics, B. burgdorferi antibodies, allergic predisposition or systemic cytokine levels. CONCLUSION: Patients with persisting symptoms following an EM show a decreased Th1-type inflammatory response in infected skin early during the infection, which might reflect a dysregulation of the early immune response. This finding supports the importance of an early, local Th1-type response for optimal resolution of LB.