Contrasting processes drive ophiuroid phylodiversity across shallow and deep seafloors.

Our knowledge of the distribution and evolution of deep-sea life is limited, impeding our ability to identify priority areas for conservation1. Here we analyse large integrated phylogenomic and distributional datasets of seafloor fauna from the sea surface to the abyss and from equator to pole of the Southern Hemisphere for an entire class of invertebrates (Ophiuroidea). We find that latitudinal diversity gradients are assembled through contrasting evolutionary processes for shallow (0-200 m) and deep (>200 m) seas. The shallow-water tropical-temperate realm broadly reflects a tropical diversification-driven process that shows exchange of lineages in both directions. Diversification rates are reversed for the realm that contains the deep sea and Antarctica; the diversification rates are highest at polar and lowest at tropical latitudes, and net exchange occurs from high to low latitudes. The tropical upper bathyal (200-700 m deep), with its rich ancient phylodiversity, is characterized by relatively low diversification and moderate immigration rates. Conversely, the young, specialized Antarctic fauna is inferred to be rebounding from regional extinctions that are associated with the rapid cooling of polar waters during the mid-Cenozoic era.

Deep-sea diversity patterns are shaped by energy availability.

The deep ocean is the largest and least-explored ecosystem on Earth, and a uniquely energy-poor environment. The distribution, drivers and origins of deep-sea biodiversity remain unknown at global scales. Here we analyse a database of more than 165,000 distribution records of Ophiuroidea (brittle stars), a dominant component of sea-floor fauna, and find patterns of biodiversity unlike known terrestrial or coastal marine realms. Both patterns and environmental predictors of deep-sea (2,000-6,500 m) species richness fundamentally differ from those found in coastal (0-20 m), continental shelf (20-200 m), and upper-slope (200-2,000 m) waters. Continental shelf to upper-slope richness consistently peaks in tropical Indo-west Pacific and Caribbean (0-30°) latitudes, and is well explained by variations in water temperature. In contrast, deep-sea species show maximum richness at higher latitudes (30-50°), concentrated in areas of high carbon export flux and regions close to continental margins. We reconcile this structuring of oceanic biodiversity using a species-energy framework, with kinetic energy predicting shallow-water richness, while chemical energy (export productivity) and proximity to slope habitats drive deep-sea diversity. Our findings provide a global baseline for conservation efforts across the sea floor, and demonstrate that deep-sea ecosystems show a biodiversity pattern consistent with ecological theory, despite being different from other planetary-scale habitats.

Relict from the Jurassic: new family of brittle-stars from a New Caledonian seamount.

The deep-seafloor in the tropical Indo-Pacific harbours a rich and diverse benthic fauna with numerous palaeoendemics. Here, we describe a new species, genus and family of brittle-star (Ophiuroidea) from a single eight-armed specimen collected from a depth between 360 and 560 m on Banc Durand, a seamount east of New Caledonia. Leveraging a robust, fossil-calibrated (265 kbp DNA) phylogeny for the Ophiuroidea, we estimate the new lineage diverged from other ophiacanthid families in the Late Triassic or Jurassic (median = 187-178 Myr, 95% CI = 215-143 Myr), a period of elevated diversification for this group. We further report very similar microfossil remains from Early Jurassic (180 Myr) sediments of Normandy, France. The discovery of a new ancient lineage in the relatively well-known Ophiuroidea indicates the importance of ongoing taxonomic research in the deep-sea, an environment increasingly threatened by human activities.

Phylogenomics, life history and morphological evolution of ophiocomid brittlestars.

Brittlestars in the family Ophiocomidae are large and colourful inhabitants of tropical shallow water habitats across the globe. Here we use targeted capture and next-generation sequencing to generate robust phylogenomic trees for 39 of the 43 species in order to test the monophyly of existing genera. The large genus Ophiocoma, as currently constituted, is paraphyletic on our trees and required revision. Four genera are recognised herein: an expanded Ophiomastix (now including Ophiocoma wendtii, O. occidentalis, O. endeani, O. macroplaca, and Ophiarthrum spp), Ophiocomella (now including the non-fissiparous Ophiocoma pumila, aethiops and valenciae) and Breviturma (now including Ophiocoma pica, O. pusilla, O. paucigranulata and O. longispina) and a restricted Ophiocoma. The resulting junior homonym Ophiomastix elegans is renamed O. brocki. The genus Ophiomastix exhibits relatively high rates of morphological disparity compared to other lineages. Ophiomastix flaccida and O. (formerly Ophiarthrum) pictum have divergent mitochondrial genomes, characterised by gene-order rearrangements, strand recoding, enriched GT base composition, and a corresponding divergence of nuclear mitochondrial protein genes. The new phylogeny indicates that larval and developmental transitions occurred rarely. Larval culture trials show that species with abbreviated lecithotrophic larval development occur only within Ophiomastix, although the possible monophyly of these species is obscured by the rapid early radiation within this genus. Asexual reproduction by fission is limited to one species-complex within Ophiocomella, also characterised by elevated levels of allelic heterozygosity, and which has achieved a relatively rapid global distribution. The crown ages of the new genera considerably predate the closure of the Tethyan seaway and all four are distributed in both the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific Oceans. Two species pairs appear to reflect the closure of the Panama Seaway, although their fossil-calibrated node ages (12-14 ±â€¯6 my), derived from both concatenated sequence and multispecies coalescent analyses, considerably predate the terminal closure event. Ophiocoma erinaceus has crossed the East Pacific barrier and is recorded from Clipperton Island, SW of Mexico.

Dark offshoot: Phylogenomic data sheds light on the evolutionary history of a new species of cave brittle star.

Caves are a useful system for testing evolutionary and biogeographic hypotheses, as they are isolated, and their environmental conditions have resulted in adaptive selection across different taxa. Although in recent years many more cave species have been discovered, cave-dwelling members of the class Ophiuroidea (brittle stars) remain scarce. Out of the more than two thousand species of brittle stars described to date, only three are regarded as true cave-dwellers. These occurrences represent rare colonising events, compared to other groups that are known to have successfully diversified in these systems. A third species from an anchihaline cave system in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico, has been previously identified from cytochrome oxidase I (COI) barcodes. In this study, we reassess the species boundaries of this putative cave species using a phylogenomic dataset (20 specimens in 13 species, 100 exons, 18.7 kbp). We perform species delimitation analyses using robust full-coalescent methods for discovery and validation of hypotheses on species boundaries, as well as infer its phylogenetic relationships with species distributed in adjacent marine regions, in order to investigate the origin of this cave-adapted species. We assess which hypotheses on the origin of subterranean taxa can be applied to this species by taking into account its placement within the genus Ophionereis and its demographic history. We provide a detailed description of Ophionereis commutabilis n. sp., and evaluate its morphological characters in the light of its successful adaptation to life in caves.

An Exon-Capture System for the Entire Class Ophiuroidea.

Exon-capture studies have typically been restricted to relatively shallow phylogenetic scales due primarily to hybridization constraints. Here, we present an exon-capture system for an entire class of marine invertebrates, the Ophiuroidea, built upon a phylogenetically diverse transcriptome foundation. The system captures approximately 90% of the 1,552 exon target, across all major lineages of the quarter-billion-year-old extant crown group. Key features of our system are 1) basing the target on an alignment of orthologous genes determined from 52 transcriptomes spanning the phylogenetic diversity and trimmed to remove anything difficult to capture, map, or align; 2) use of multiple artificial representatives based on ancestral state reconstructions rather than exemplars to improve capture and mapping of the target; 3) mapping reads to a multi-reference alignment; and 4) using patterns of site polymorphism to distinguish among paralogy, polyploidy, allelic differences, and sample contamination. The resulting data give a well-resolved tree (currently standing at 417 samples, 275,352 sites, 91% data-complete) that will transform our understanding of ophiuroid evolution and biogeography.

The importance of offshore origination revealed through ophiuroid phylogenomics.

Our knowledge of macro-evolutionary processes in the deep sea is poor, leading to much speculation about whether the deep sea is a source or sink of evolutionary adaptation. Here, we use a phylogenetic approach, on large molecular (688 species, 275 kbp) and distributional datasets (104 513 records) across an entire class of marine invertebrates (Ophiuroidea), to infer rates of bathymetric range shift over time between shallow and deep water biomes. Biome conservation is evident through the phylogeny, with the majority of species in most clades distributed within the same bathome. Despite this, bathymetric shifts have occurred. We inferred from ancestral reconstructions that eurybathic or intermediate distributions across both biomes were a transitional state and direct changes between shallow and deep sea did not occur. The macro-evolutionary pattern of bathome shift appeared to reflect micro-evolutionary processes of bathymetric speciation. Results suggest that most of the oldest clades have a deep-sea origin, but multiple colonization events indicate that the evolution of this group conforms neither to a simple onshore-offshore hypothesis, nor the opposite pattern. Both shallow and deep bathomes have played an important role in generating the current diversity of this major benthic class.

Restructuring higher taxonomy using broad-scale phylogenomics: The living Ophiuroidea.

The power and throughput of next-generation sequencing is instigating a major transformation in our understanding of evolution and classification of life on our planet. The new trees of life are robust and comprehensive. Here we provide a landmark phylogeny of the living ophiuroids and use it as the basis for a major revision of the higher classification of this class of marine invertebrates. We used an exon-capture system to generate a 1484 exon (273kbp) data-matrix from DNA extracted from ethanol-preserved museum samples. We successfully obtained an average of 90% of our target sequence from 576 species spread across the known taxonomic diversity. The topology of the major lineages was robust to taxon sampling, exon-sampling, models and methods. However, estimates of node age were much less precise, varying by about a quarter of mean age. We used a combination of phylogenetic distinctiveness and temporal-banding to guide our revision of the family-level classification. Empirically, we determined that limiting family crown age to 110±10Ma (mid Cretaceous) selected phylogenetically distinct nodes while minimising disruption to the existing taxonomy. The resulting scheme of 32 families and six orders considerably expands the number of higher taxa. The families are generally longitudinally widespread across the world's oceans, although 17 are largely confined to temperate and equatorial latitudes and six to relatively shallow water (less than 1000m depth).

Commonness and rarity in the marine biosphere.

Explaining patterns of commonness and rarity is fundamental for understanding and managing biodiversity. Consequently, a key test of biodiversity theory has been how well ecological models reproduce empirical distributions of species abundances. However, ecological models with very different assumptions can predict similar species abundance distributions, whereas models with similar assumptions may generate very different predictions. This complicates inferring processes driving community structure from model fits to data. Here, we use an approximation that captures common features of "neutral" biodiversity models--which assume ecological equivalence of species--to test whether neutrality is consistent with patterns of commonness and rarity in the marine biosphere. We do this by analyzing 1,185 species abundance distributions from 14 marine ecosystems ranging from intertidal habitats to abyssal depths, and from the tropics to polar regions. Neutrality performs substantially worse than a classical nonneutral alternative: empirical data consistently show greater heterogeneity of species abundances than expected under neutrality. Poor performance of neutral theory is driven by its consistent inability to capture the dominance of the communities' most-abundant species. Previous tests showing poor performance of a neutral model for a particular system often have been followed by controversy about whether an alternative formulation of neutral theory could explain the data after all. However, our approach focuses on common features of neutral models, revealing discrepancies with a broad range of empirical abundance distributions. These findings highlight the need for biodiversity theory in which ecological differences among species, such as niche differences and demographic trade-offs, play a central role.

Revision of some ophiuroid records (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea) from Argentina.

The taxonomy of some ophiuroids reported from off Argentina, western Antarctica and the SW Atlantic Ocean is reviewed. The species Amphilepis sanmatiensis, known only from the small holotype, is a synonym of Amphioplus lucyae. This synonymy removes the only reported endemic ophiuroid from Argentina. The species name "Ophiacantha ingrata Koehler, 1923" used for specimens from South Georgia is invalid; the specimens are likely to belong to one of two cryptic species within the O. vivipara complex. Specimens of Amphiura joubini reported from Argentina are re-identified as Amphiura princeps, and specimens of Ophiactis amator from the Antarctic Peninsula are re-identified as Ophiactis asperula.

Evolution of Maternal Provisioning and Development in the Ophiuroidea: Egg Size, Larval Form and Parental Care.

The Ophiuroidea is the most speciose class of echinoderms and has the greatest diversity of larval forms, but we know less about the evolution of development (evo-devo) in this group than for the other echinoderm classes. As is typical of echinoderms, evo-devo in the Ophiuroidea resulted in the switch from production of small eggs and feeding (planktotrophic) larvae to large eggs and non-feeding (lecithotrophic) larvae. Parental care (ovoviviparity or viviparity/matrotrophy) is the most derived life history. Analysis of egg data for 140 species (excluding viviparity and facultative planktotrophy) indicated a bimodal distribution in egg volume corresponding to planktotrophy and lecithotrophy + ovoviviparity, with three significant egg size groups due to the very large eggs of the ovoviviparous species. The marked reduction in fecundity in species with extremely large eggs is exemplified by the ovoviviparous species. Egg size in the two species with facultative planktotrophy were intermediate with respect to the two modes. Identifying the ancestral larval life history pattern and the pathways in the switch from feeding to non-feeding larvae is complicated by the two patterns of metamorphosis seen in species with planktotrophic development: Type I (ophiopluteus only) and Type II (ophiopluteus + vitellaria larva). The variability in arm resorption at metamorphosis across ophiuroid families indicates that the Type I and II patterns may be two ends of a morphological continuum. This variability indicates ancestral morphological plasticity at metamorphosis followed by canalization in some taxa to the vitellaria as the metamorphic larva. Vestigial ophiopluteal traits in lecithotrophic ophioplutei and vitellaria indicate evolution from the ancestral (feeding larva) state. Parental care has evolved many times from an ancestor that had a planktonic ophiopluteus or vitellaria and is often associated with hermaphroditism and paedomorphosis. A secondary reduction in egg size occurred in the viviparous species.

Ophiuroids (Echinodermata; Ophiuroidea) of biogenic habitats on the continental shelf of New Zealand.

The taxonomy of ophiuroids collected in 2009 and 2011, from biogenic habitats across the New Zealand continental shelf, is reviewed. Ophionereis novaezelandiae Mortensen, 1936, and its junior synonym Ophionereis terba Baker & Devaney, 1981 from South-Eastern Australia, is now recognised as a distinct species, and has been removed from synonymy with Ophionereis fasciata Hutton, 1872. Ophiacantha abyssicola var. otagoensis Fell, 1958 is also recognised as a distinct species and has been removed from synonymy with Ophiacantha brachygnatha Clark H L, 1928. Amphiura eugeniae var. latisquama Mortensen, 1924 is raised to species rank and Amphioplus longirima Fell, 1952 treated as a synonym of A. latisquama. Ophiolycus farquhari McKnight, 2003 is transferred to the genus Ophiologimus. The diagnostic characters of several other species are reviewed and colour descriptions and images are included where available. The tropical species Ophiacantha longidens Lyman, 1878, Ophiotreta valenciennesi (Lyman, 1879) and Ophiobyrsa intorta (Koehler, 1922) are reported from New Zealand waters for the first time.

Benthic megafauna of the western Clarion-Clipperton Zone, Pacific Ocean.

There is a growing interest in the exploitation of deep-sea mineral deposits, particularly on the abyssal seafloor of the central Pacific Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ), which is rich in polymetallic nodules. In order to effectively manage potential exploitation activities, a thorough understanding of the biodiversity, community structure, species ranges, connectivity, and ecosystem functions across a range of scales is needed. The benthic megafauna plays an important role in the functioning of deep-sea ecosystems and represents an important component of the biodiversity. While megafaunal surveys using video and still images have provided insight into CCZ biodiversity, the collection of faunal samples is needed to confirm species identifications to accurately estimate species richness and species ranges, but faunal collections are very rarely carried out. Using a Remotely Operated Vehicle, 55 specimens of benthic megafauna were collected from seamounts and abyssal plains in three Areas of Particular Environmental Interest (APEI 1, APEI 4, and APEI 7) at 3100-5100 m depth in the western CCZ. Using both morphological and molecular evidence, 48 different morphotypes belonging to five phyla were found, only nine referrable to known species, and 39 species potentially new to science. This work highlights the need for detailed taxonomic studies incorporating genetic data, not only within the CCZ, but in other bathyal, abyssal, and hadal regions, as representative genetic reference libraries that could facilitate the generation of species inventories.

Molecular phylogeny of the order Euryalida (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea), based on mitochondrial and nuclear ribosomal genes.

The existing taxonomy of Euryalida, one of the two orders of the Ophiuroidea (Echinodermata), is uncertain and characterized by controversial delimitation of taxonomic ranks from genus to family-level. Their phylogeny was not studied in detail until now. We investigated a dataset of sequence from a mitochondrial gene (16S rRNA) and two nucleic genes (18S rRNA and 28S rRNA) for 49 euryalid ophiuroids and four outgroup species from the order Ophiurida. The monophyly of the order Euryalida was supported as was the monophyly of Asteronychidae, Gorgonocephalidae and an Asteroschematidae+Euryalidae clade. However, the group currently known as the Asteroschematidae was paraphyletic with respect to the Euryalidae. The Asteroschematidae+Euryalidae clade, which we recognise as an enlarged Euryalidae, contains three natural groups: the Asteroschematinae (Asteroschema and Ophiocreas), a new subfamily Astrocharinae (Astrocharis) and the Euryalinae with remaining genera. These subfamilies can be distinguished by internal ossicle morphology.

Deep-sea Ophiuroidea (Echinodermata) from the Danish Galathea II Expedition, 1950-52, with taxonomic revisions.

The brittle star samples collected by the Danish cruise 'Galathea II' (1950-52) had not been studied completely. We examined the remaining deep-sea samples (400 m) and present the species inventory, discussing taxonomic issues in relation to recent phylogenetic data. About 235 samples were examined, over 9,300 individuals, from 67 species and 74 sampling localities, at depths of 425-5340 m. The species complex Amphiophiura bullata (Thomson, 1877) is morphologically not well separated, but molecular data suggest at least two clades. We propose to apply A. bullata for Atlantic and Australian populations and A. convexa (Lyman, 1878) for the North Pacific clade. We consider A. bullata pacifica Litvinova, 1971 conspecific with A. convexa. Ophiuroglypha irrorata (Lyman, 1878) and its subspecies are a polyphyletic group with unclear morphological boundaries. We propose to transfer Ophiura ossiculata (Koehler, 1908), Ophiura plana (Lütken Mortensen, 1899) and Ophiura scomba Paterson, 1985 to Ophiuroglypha. Silax Fell, 1962, until now synonymised with Amphioplus Verrill, 1899, is proposed as a valid genus with the species S. verrilli (Lyman, 1879), S. consors (Koehler, 1908), S. daleus (Lyman, 1879), S. patulus (Lyman, 1879) and S. magnificus (Koehler, 1907). Triplodia Turner Hallen, 2011 (a replacement name for Triodia A. M. Clark, 1970, due to homonymy) is synonymised with Silax, and possible specimens of its type species Triodia abdita A. M. Clark, 1970 are analysed. The species limits of Ophiacantha cosmica Lyman, 1879 and Ophiacantha pacifica Lütken Mortensen, 1899 could not be confirmed morphologically, but published molecular data suggest two clades. We propose to apply O. pacifica to the Northern/Central Pacific population and O. cosmica to the Southern Pacific/Antarctic population.

Convergent Evolution and Structural Adaptation to the Deep Ocean in the Protein-Folding Chaperonin CCTα.

The deep ocean is the largest biome on Earth and yet it is among the least studied environments of our planet. Life at great depths requires several specific adaptations; however, their molecular mechanisms remain understudied. We examined patterns of positive selection in 416 genes from four brittle star (Ophiuroidea) families displaying replicated events of deep-sea colonization (288 individuals from 216 species). We found consistent signatures of molecular convergence in functions related to protein biogenesis, including protein folding and translation. Five genes were recurrently positively selected, including chaperonin-containing TCP-1 subunit α (CCTα), which is essential for protein folding. Molecular convergence was detected at the functional and gene levels but not at the amino-acid level. Pressure-adapted proteins are expected to display higher stability to counteract the effects of denaturation. We thus examined in silico local protein stability of CCTα across the ophiuroid tree of life (967 individuals from 725 species) in a phylogenetically corrected context and found that deep-sea-adapted proteins display higher stability within and next to the substrate-binding region, which was confirmed by in silico global protein stability analyses. This suggests that CCTα displays not only structural but also functional adaptations to deep-water conditions. The CCT complex is involved in the folding of ∼10% of newly synthesized proteins and has previously been categorized as a "cold-shock" protein in numerous eukaryotes. We thus propose that adaptation mechanisms to cold and deep-sea environments may be linked and highlight that efficient protein biogenesis, including protein folding and translation, is a key metabolic deep-sea adaptation.

Characterization of deep-sea benthic invertebrate megafauna of the Galapagos Islands.

The deep sea represents the largest and least explored biome on the planet. Despite the iconic status of the Galapagos Islands and being considered one of the most pristine locations on earth, the deep-sea benthic ecosystems of the archipelago are virtually unexplored in comparison to their shallow-water counterparts. In 2015, we embarked on a multi-disciplinary scientific expedition to conduct the first systematic characterization of deep-sea benthic invertebrate communities of the Galapagos, across a range of habitats. We explored seven sites to depths of over 3,300 m using a two-part Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) system aboard the E/V Nautilus, and collected 90 biological specimens that were preserved and sent to experts around the world for analysis. Of those, 30 taxa were determined to be undescribed and new to science, including members of five new genera (2 sponges and 3 cnidarians). We also systematically analysed image frame grabs from over 85 h of ROV footage to investigate patterns of species diversity and document the presence of a range of underwater communities between depths of 290 and 3,373 m, including cold-water coral communities, extensive glass sponge and octocoral gardens, and soft-sediment faunal communities. This characterization of Galapagos deep-sea benthic invertebrate megafauna across a range of ecosystems represents a first step to study future changes that may result from anthropogenic impacts to the planet's climate and oceans, and informed the creation of fully protected deep-water areas in the Galapagos Marine Reserve that may help preserve these unique communities in our changing planet.

Dark Ophiuroid Biodiversity in a Prospective Abyssal Mine Field.

The seafloor contains valuable mineral resources, including polymetallic (or manganese) nodules that form on offshore abyssal plains. The largest and most commercially attractive deposits are located in the Clarion Clipperton Fracture Zone (CCZ), in the eastern Pacific Ocean (EP) between Hawaii and Mexico, where testing of a mineral collection system is set to start soon [1]. The requirement to establish pre-mining environmental management plans has prompted numerous recent biodiversity and DNA barcoding surveys across these remote regions. Here we map DNA sequences from sampled ophiuroids (brittle stars, including post-larvae) of the CCZ and Peru Basin onto a substantial tree of life to show unprecedented levels of abyssal ophiuroid phylogenetic diversity including at least three ancient (>70 Ma), previously unknown clades. While substantial dark (unobserved) biodiversity has been reported from various microbial meta-barcoding projects [2, 3], our data show that we have considerably under-estimated the biodiversity of even the most conspicuous mega-faunal invertebrates [4] of the EP abyssal plain.

Investigation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis transmission aboard the U.S.S. Ronald Reagan, 2006.

Pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) was diagnosed in a sailor aboard the U.S.S. Ronald Reagan; an investigation was conducted to determine a screening strategy for 1,172 civilian passengers who were aboard during a temporary guest rider program. Sailors were screened for latent TB infection (LTBI) and TB disease. A case-control study was conducted among sailors to determine factors associated with new LTBI. No secondary TB disease was identified; 13% of close contacts had new LTBI. Factors associated with new LTBI among sailors were having been born outside the United States (adjusted odds ratio = 2.80; 95% confidence interval, 1.55--5.07) and being a carrier air wing member (adjusted odds ratio = 2.89; 95% confidence interval, 1.83--4.58). Among 38 civilian passengers berthed near the patient, 1 (3%) had LTBI. The investigation results indicated that Mycobacterium tuberculosis transmission was minimal and eliminated unnecessary TB screening for 1,134 civilians which saved public health resources.

Discovery of novel representatives of bilaterian neuropeptide families and reconstruction of neuropeptide precursor evolution in ophiuroid echinoderms.

Neuropeptides are a diverse class of intercellular signalling molecules that mediate neuronal regulation of many physiological and behavioural processes. Recent advances in genome/transcriptome sequencing are enabling identification of neuropeptide precursor proteins in species from a growing variety of animal taxa, providing new insights into the evolution of neuropeptide signalling. Here, detailed analysis of transcriptome sequence data from three brittle star species, Ophionotus victoriae, Amphiura filiformis and Ophiopsila aranea, has enabled the first comprehensive identification of neuropeptide precursors in the class Ophiuroidea of the phylum Echinodermata. Representatives of over 30 bilaterian neuropeptide precursor families were identified, some of which occur as paralogues. Furthermore, homologues of endothelin/CCHamide, eclosion hormone, neuropeptide-F/Y and nucleobinin/nesfatin were discovered here in a deuterostome/echinoderm for the first time. The majority of ophiuroid neuropeptide precursors contain a single copy of a neuropeptide, but several precursors comprise multiple copies of identical or non-identical, but structurally related, neuropeptides. Here, we performed an unprecedented investigation of the evolution of neuropeptide copy number over a period of approximately 270 Myr by analysing sequence data from over 50 ophiuroid species, with reference to a robust phylogeny. Our analysis indicates that the composition of neuropeptide 'cocktails' is functionally important, but with plasticity over long evolutionary time scales.