Outcomes and costs of implementing a community-based intervention for hypertension in an urban slum in Kenya.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the processes, outcomes and costs of implementing a multi-component, community-based intervention for hypertension among adults aged > 35 years in a large slum in Nairobi, Kenya. METHODS: The intervention in 2012-2013 was based on four components: awareness-raising; improved access to screening; standardized clinical management of hypertension; and long-term retention in care. Using multiple sources of data, including administrative records and surveys, we described the inputs and outputs of each intervention activity and estimated the outcomes of each component and the impact of the intervention. We also estimated the costs associated with implementation, using a top-down costing approach. FINDINGS: The intervention reached 60% of the target population (4049/6780 people), at a cost of 17 United States dollars (US$) per person screened and provided access to treatment for 68% (660/976) of people referred, at a cost of US$ 123 per person with hypertension who attended the clinic. Of the 660 people who attended the clinic, 27% (178) were retained in care, at a cost of US$ 194 per person retained; and of those patients, 33% (58/178) achieved blood pressure control. The total intervention cost per patient with blood pressure controlled was US$ 3205. CONCLUSION: With moderate implementation costs, it was possible to achieve hypertension awareness and treatment levels comparable to those in high-income settings. However, retention in care and blood pressure control were challenges in this slum setting. For patients, the costs and lack of time or forgetfulness were barriers to retention in care.

Salt intakes in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-regression.

BACKGROUND: High sodium intake increases the risk of hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. For this reason the World Health Organization recommends a maximum intake of 2 g per day and a 30 % reduction in population sodium intake by 2025. However, in global reviews, data on sodium intake in sub-Saharan Africa have been limited. METHODS: A systematic review was conducted to identify studies reporting sodium intake in sub-Saharan African populations. Meta-regression analyses were used to test the effect of year of data collection and method of data collection (urinary/dietary), as well as any association between sex, urban/rural status or a country's economic development, and population sodium intake. RESULTS: We identified 42 papers reporting 67 estimates of adult population sodium intakes and 12 estimates of child population sodium intakes since 1967. Of the 67 adult populations, 54 (81 %) consumed more than 2 g sodium/day, as did four of the 12 (33 %) child populations. Sixty-five adult estimates were included in the meta-regression, which found that urban populations consumed higher amounts of salt than rural populations and that urine collection gave lower estimates of sodium intake than dietary data. CONCLUSIONS: Sodium intake in much of sub-Saharan Africa is above the World Health Organization's recommended maximum intake and may be set to increase as the continent undergoes considerable urbanization. Few identified studies used stringent measurement criteria or representative population samples. High quality studies will be required to identify where and with whom to intervene, in order to meet the World Health Organization's target of a 30 % reduction in population sodium intake and to demonstrate progress towards this target.

A comparative analysis of national HIV policies in six African countries with generalized epidemics.

OBJECTIVE: To compare national human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) policies influencing access to HIV testing and treatment services in six sub-Saharan African countries. METHODS: We reviewed HIV policies as part of a multi-country study on adult mortality in sub-Saharan Africa. A policy extraction tool was developed and used to review national HIV policy documents and guidelines published in Kenya, Malawi, South Africa, Uganda, the United Republic of Tanzania and Zimbabwe between 2003 and 2013. Key informant interviews helped to fill gaps in findings. National policies were categorized according to whether they explicitly or implicitly adhered to 54 policy indicators, identified through literature and expert reviews. We also compared the national policies with World Health Organization (WHO) guidance. FINDINGS: There was wide variation in policies between countries; each country was progressive in some areas and not in others. Malawi was particularly advanced in promoting rapid initiation of antiretroviral therapy. However, no country had a consistently enabling policy context expected to increase access to care and prevent attrition. Countries went beyond WHO guidance in certain areas and key informants reported that practice often surpassed policy. CONCLUSION: Evaluating the impact of policy differences on access to care and health outcomes among people living with HIV is challenging. Certain policies will exert more influence than others and official policies are not always implemented. Future research should assess the extent of policy implementation and link these findings with HIV outcomes.

Trends in Causes of Adult Deaths among the Urban Poor: Evidence from Nairobi Urban Health and Demographic Surveillance System, 2003-2012.

What kills people around the world and how it varies from place to place and over time is critical in mapping the global burden of disease and therefore, a relevant public health question, especially in developing countries. While more than two thirds of deaths worldwide are in developing countries, little is known about the causes of death in these nations. In many instances, vital registration systems are nonexistent or at best rudimentary, and even when deaths are registered, data on the cause of death in particular local contexts, which is an important step toward improving context-specific public health, are lacking. In this paper, we examine the trends in the causes of death among the urban poor in two informal settlements in Nairobi by applying the InterVA-4 software to verbal autopsy data. We examine cause of death data from 2646 verbal autopsies of deaths that occurred in the Nairobi Urban Health and Demographic Surveillance System (NUHDSS) between 1 January 2003 and 31 December 2012 among residents aged 15 years and above. The data is entered into the InterVA-4 computer program, which assigns cause of death using probabilistic modeling. The results are presented as annualized trends from 2003 to 2012 and disaggregated by gender and age. Over the 10-year period, the three major causes of death are tuberculosis (TB), injuries, and HIV/AIDS, accounting for 26.9, 20.9, and 17.3% of all deaths, respectively. In 2003, HIV/AIDS was the highest cause of death followed by TB and then injuries. However, by 2012, TB and injuries had overtaken HIV/AIDS as the major causes of death. When this is examined by gender, HIV/AIDS was consistently higher for women than men across all the years generally by a ratio of 2 to 1. In terms of TB, it was more evenly distributed across the years for both males and females. We find that there is significant gender variation in deaths linked to injuries, with male deaths being higher than female deaths by a ratio of about 4 to 1. We also find a fifteen percentage point increase in the incidences of male deaths due to injuries between 2003 and 2012. For women, the corresponding deaths due to injuries remain fairly stable throughout the period. We find cardiovascular diseases as a significant cause of death over the period, with overall mortality increasing steadily from 1.6% in 2003 to 8.1% in 2012, and peaking at 13.7% in 2005 and at 12.0% in 2009. These deaths were consistently higher among women. We identified substantial variations in causes of death by age, with TB, HIV/AIDS, and CVD deaths lowest among younger residents and increasing with age, while injury-related deaths are highest among the youngest adults 15-19 and steadily declined with age. Also, deaths related to neoplasms and respiratory tract infections (RTIs) were prominent among older adults 50 years and above, especially since 2005. Emerging at this stage is evidence that HIV/AIDS, TB, injuries, and cardiovascular disease are linked to approximately 73% of all adult deaths among the urban poor in Nairobi slums of Korogocho and Viwandani in the last 10 years. While mortality related to HIV/AIDS is generally declining, we see an increasing proportion of deaths due to TB, injuries, and cardiovascular diseases. In sum, substantial epidemiological transition is ongoing in this local context, with deaths linked to communicable diseases declining from 66% in 2003 to 53% in 2012, while deaths due to noncommunicable causes experienced a four-fold increase from 5% in 2003 to 21.3% in 2012, together with another two-fold increase in deaths due to external causes (injuries) from 11% in 2003 to 22% in 2012. It is important to also underscore the gender dimensions of the epidemiological transition clearly visible in the mix. Finally, the elevated levels of disadvantage of slum dwellers in our analysis relative to other population subgroups in Kenya continue to demonstrate appreciable deterioration of key urban health and social indicators, highlighting the need for a deliberate strategic focus on the health needs of the urban poor in policy and program efforts toward achieving international goals and national health and development targets.

Profile of people with hypertension in Nairobi's slums: a descriptive study.

BACKGROUND: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a rising health burden among the world's poor with hypertension as the main risk factor. In sub-Saharan Africa, hypertension is increasingly affecting the urban population of which a substantial part lives in slums. This study aims to give insight into the profile of patients with hypertension living in slums of Nairobi, Kenya. METHODS: Sociodemographic and anthropometric data as well as clinical measurements including BP from 440 adults with hypertension aged 35 years and above living in Korogocho, a slum on the eastern side of Nairobi, Kenya, will be collected at baseline and at the first clinic visit. CONCLUSION: The study population showed high prevalence of overweight and abdominal obesity as well as behavioral risk factors such as smoking, alcohol and a low vegetable and fruit intake. Furthermore, the majority of hypertensive patients do not take anti-hypertensive medication and the ones who do show little adherence. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Current controlled trials ISRCTN84424579 .

Cardiovascular prevention model from Kenyan slums to migrants in the Netherlands.

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the main cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. As prevention and treatment of CVD often requires active screening and lifelong follow up it is a challenge for health systems both in high-income and low and middle-income countries to deliver adequate care to those in need, with efficient use of resources.We developed a health service model for primary prevention of CVD suitable for implementation in the Nairobi slums, based on best practices from public health and the private sectors. The model consists of four key intervention elements focusing on increasing awareness, incentives for promoting access to screening and treatment, and improvement of long-term adherence to prescribed medications. More than 5,000 slum dwellers aged ≥35 years and above have been screened in the study resulting in more than 1000 diagnosed with hypertension and referred to the clinic.Some marginalized groups in high-income countries like African migrants in the Netherlands also have low rates of awareness, treatment and control of hypertension as the slum population in Nairobi. The parallel between both groups is that they have a combination of risky lifestyle, are prone to chronic diseases such as hypertension, have limited knowledge about hypertension and its complications, and a tendency to stay away from clinics partly due to cultural beliefs in alternative forms of treatment, and lack of trust in health providers. Based on these similarities it was suggested by several policymakers that the model from Nairobi can be applied to other vulnerable populations such as African migrants in high-income countries. The model can be contextualized to the local situation by adapting the key steps of the model to the local settings.The involvement and support of African communities' infrastructures and health care staff is crucial, and the most important enabler for successful implementation of the model in migrant communities in high-income countries. Once these stakeholders have expressed their interest, the impact of the adapted intervention can be measured through an implementation research approach including collection of costs from health care providers' perspective and health effects in the target population, similar to the study design for Nairobi.

Results of a hypertension and diabetes treatment program in the slums of Nairobi: a retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the world's leading cause of death and their prevalence is rising. Diabetes and hypertension, major risk factors for CVD, are highly prevalent among the urban poor in Africa, but treatment options are often limited in such settings. This study reports on the results of an intervention for the treatment of diabetes and hypertension for adult residents of two slums in Nairobi, Kenya. METHODS: After setting up two clinics in two slums in Nairobi, hypertension and/or diabetes patients were seen by a clinician monthly. Socio-demographic characteristics and clinical data were collected over a 34-month period. Records were analyzed for 726 patients who visited the clinics at least once to determine clinic attendance and compliance patterns using survival analysis. We also examined changes in systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and random blood glucose (RBG) during the course of the program. RESULTS: There was poor compliance with clinic attendance as only 3.4% of patients attended the clinics on a regular (monthly) basis throughout the 34-month period. 75% of hypertension patients were not compliant after four visits and 27% of patients had only one clinic visit. Significant reduction of mean SBP and DBP (150.4 mmHg to 141.5 mmHg, P = .003, and 89.3 mmHg to 83.2 mmHg, P < .001) was seen for all patients that stayed in care for at least one year. CONCLUSIONS: Establishing a preventative care and treatment system in low resource settings for CVD is challenging due to high dropout rates and non-compliance. Innovative strategies are needed to ensure that benefits of treatment programs are sustained for long-term CVD risk reduction in poor urban populations.

The magnitude of diabetes and its association with obesity in the slums of Nairobi, Kenya: results from a cross-sectional survey.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the prevalence, awareness, treatment and control of diabetes and to examine the relationship of obesity with raised blood glucose in the slums of Nairobi, Kenya. METHODS: We used data from a cross-sectional population-based survey, conducted in 2008-2009, involving a random sample of 5190 (2794 men and 2396 women) adults aged ≥18 years living in two slums - Korogocho and Viwandani - in Nairobi. RESULTS: The prevalence (weighted by sampling and response rates) of diabetes was 4.8% (95%CI 4.0-5.7) in women and 4.0% (95%CI 3.3-4.7) in men. Less than a quarter of those found to have diabetes were aware of their condition among which just over half of men and three-quarters of women reported being on any treatment in the 12 months preceding the survey. Overall, fewer than 5% of all people with diabetes had their blood sugar under control. Obesity and overweight were significantly associated with increased odds (1.7, 95%CI 1.1-2.6) of raised blood glucose only among women while adjusting for important covariates. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of diabetes in this impoverished population is moderately high, while the levels of awareness, treatment and control are quite low. In this population, obesity is an important risk factor for raised blood glucose particularly among women. Prevention and control strategies that target modifiable risk factors for diabetes and increase access to treatment and control in such disadvantaged settings are urgently needed.

HIV mortality in urban slums of Nairobi, Kenya 2003-2010: a period effect analysis.

BACKGROUND: It has been almost a decade since HIV was declared a national disaster in Kenya. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) provision has been a mainstay of HIV treatment efforts globally. In Kenya, the government started ART provision in 2003 with significantly scale-up after 2006. This study aims to demonstrate changes in population-level HIV mortality in two high HIV prevalence slums in Nairobi with respect to the initiation and subsequent scale-up of the national ART program. METHODS: We used data from 2070 deaths of people aged 15-54 years that occurred between 2003 and 2010 in a population of about 72,000 individuals living in two slums covered by the Nairobi Urban Health and Demographic Surveillance System. Only deaths for which verbal autopsy was conducted were included in the study. We divided the analysis into two time periods: the "early" period (2003-2006) which coincides with the initiation of ART program in Kenya, and the "late" period (2007-2010) which coincides with the scale up of the program nationally. We calculated the mortality rate per 1000 person years by gender and age for both periods. Poisson regression was used to predict the risk of HIV mortality in the two periods while controlling for age and gender. RESULTS: Overall, HIV mortality declined significantly from 2.5 per 1,000 person years in the early period to 1.7 per 1,000 person years in the late period. The risk of dying from HIV was 53 percent less in the late period compared to the period before, controlling for age and gender. Women experienced a decline in HIV mortality between the two periods that was more than double that of men. At the same time, the risk of non-HIV mortality did not change significantly between the two time periods. CONCLUSIONS: Population-level HIV mortality in Nairobi's slums was significantly lower in the approximate period coinciding with the scale-up of ART provision in Kenya. However, further studies that incorporate ART coverage data in mortality estimates are needed. Such information will enhance our understanding of the full impact of ART scale-up in reducing adult mortality among marginalized slum populations in Kenya.

Review of community-based interventions for prevention of cardiovascular diseases in low- and middle-income countries.

BACKGROUND: An increasing burden of cardiovascular disease (CVD) is occurring in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) as a result of urbanisation and globalisation. Low rates of awareness and treatment of risk factors worsen the prognosis in these settings. Prevention of CVD is proven to be cost effective and should be the main intervention. Insight into prevention programmes in LMIC is important in addressing the rising levels of these diseases. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effectiveness of the community-based interventions for CVD prevention programmes in LMIC. DESIGN: A literature review with searches in the databases of PubMed, EMBASE, CINAHL, LILACS, African Index Medicus and Google Scholar between 1990 and May 2012. RESULTS: Twenty-six studies involving population-based and high-risk interventions have been included in this review. The content of the population intervention was mainly health promotion through media and health education, and the high-risk approach focused often on education of patients, training of health care providers and implementing treatment guidelines. A few studies had a single intervention on exercising or salt reduction. Most studies showed a significant reduction of cardiovascular risk ranging from lifestyle changes on diet, smoking and alcohol to biomedical outcomes like blood pressure, glucose levels or weight. Some studies showed improved management of risk factors like increased control of hypertension or adherence to medication. CONCLUSION: There have been effective community-based programmes aimed at reducing cardiovascular risk factors in LMIC but these have generally been limited to the urban poor. Health education with a focus on diet and salt, training of health care providers and implementing treatment guidelines form key elements in successful programmes.

Perspective: Food Environment Research Priorities for Africa-Lessons from the Africa Food Environment Research Network.

Over the last 2 decades, many African countries have undergone dietary and nutrition transitions fueled by globalization, rapid urbanization, and development. These changes have altered African food environments and, subsequently, dietary behaviors, including food acquisition and consumption. Dietary patterns associated with the nutrition transition have contributed to Africa's complex burden of malnutrition-obesity and other diet-related noncommunicable diseases (DR-NCDs)-along with persistent food insecurity and undernutrition. Available evidence links unhealthy or obesogenic food environments (including those that market and offer energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods and beverages) with suboptimal diets and associated adverse health outcomes. Elsewhere, governments have responded with policies to improve food environments. However, in Africa, the necessary research and policy action have received insufficient attention. Contextual evidence to motivate, enable, and create supportive food environments in Africa for better population health is urgently needed. In November 2020, the Measurement, Evaluation, Accountability, and Leadership Support for Noncommunicable Diseases Prevention Project (MEALS4NCDs) convened the first Africa Food Environment Research Network Meeting (FERN2020). This 3-d virtual meeting brought researchers from around the world to deliberate on future directions and research priorities related to improving food environments and nutrition across the African continent. The stakeholders shared experiences, best practices, challenges, and opportunities for improving the healthfulness of food environments and related policies in low- and middle-income countries. In this article, we summarize the proceedings and research priorities identified in the meeting to advance the food environment research agenda in Africa, and thus contribute to the promotion of healthier food environments to prevent DR-NCDs, and other forms of malnutrition.

Determinants for HIV testing and counselling in Nairobi urban informal settlements.

BACKGROUND: Counselling and testing is important in HIV prevention and care. Majority of people in sub-Saharan Africa do not know their HIV status and are therefore unable to take steps to prevent infection or take up life prolonging anti-retroviral drugs in time if infected. This study aimed at exploring determinants of HIV testing and counselling in two Nairobi informal settlements. METHODS: Data are derived from a cross-sectional survey nested in an ongoing demographic surveillance system. A total of 3,162 individuals responded to the interview and out of these, 82% provided a blood sample which was tested using rapid test kits. The outcome of interest in this paper was HIV testing status in the past categorised as "never tested"; "client-initiated testing and counselling (CITC)" and provider-initiated testing and counselling (PITC). Multinomial logistic regression was used to identify determinants of HIV testing. RESULTS: Approximately 31% of all respondents had ever been tested for HIV through CITC, 22% through PITC and 42% had never been tested but indicated willingness to test. Overall, 62% of females and 38% of males had ever been tested for HIV. Males were less likely to have had CITC (OR = 0.47; p value < 0.001) and also less likely to have had PITC (OR = 0.16; p value < 0.001) compared to females. Individuals aged 20-24 years were more likely to have had either CITC or PITC compared to the other age groups. The divorced/separated/widowed were more likely (OR = 1.65; p value < 0.01) to have had CITC than their married counterparts, while the never married were less likely to have had either CITC or PITC. HIV positive individuals (OR = 1.60; p value < 0.01) and those who refused testing in the survey (OR = 1.39; p value < 0.05) were more likely to have had CITC compared to their HIV negative counterparts. CONCLUSION: Although the proportion of individuals ever tested in the informal settlements is similar to the national average, it remains low compared to that of Nairobi province especially among men. Key determinants of HIV testing and counselling include; gender, age, education level, HIV status and marital status. These factors need to be considered in efforts aimed at increasing participation in HIV testing.

The impact of community led alternative rite of passage on eradication of female genital mutilation/cutting in Kajiado County, Kenya: A quasi-experimental study.

INTRODUCTION: In Kenya, Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C) is highly prevalent in specific communities such as the Maasai and Somali. With the intention of curtailing FMG/C prevalence in Maasai community, Amref Health Africa, designed and implemented a novel intervention-community-led alternative rite of passage (CLARP) in Kajiado County in Kenya since 2009. The study: a) determined the impact of the CLARP model on FGM/C, child early and forced marriages (CEFM), teenage pregnancies (TP) and years of schooling among girls and b) explored the attitude, perception and practices of community stakeholders towards FGM/C. METHODS: We utilised a mixed methods approach. A difference-in-difference approach was used to quantify the average impact of the model with Kajiado as the intervention County and Mandera, Marsabit and Wajir as control counties. The approach relied on secondary data analysis of the Kenya Demographic and Health Survey (KDHS) 2003, 2008-2009 and 2014. A qualitative approach involving focus group discussions, in-depth interviews and key informant interviews were conducted with various respondents and community stakeholders to document experiences, attitude and practices towards FGM/C. RESULTS: The CLARP has contributed to: 1) decline in FGM/C prevalence, CEFM rates and TP rates among girls by 24.2% (p<0.10), 4.9% (p<0.01) and 6.3% (p<0.01) respectively. 2) increase in girls schooling years by 2.5 years (p<0.05). Perceived CLARP benefits to girls included: reduction in teenage marriages and childbirth; increased school retention and completion; teenage pregnancies reduction and decline in FGM/C prevalence. Community stakeholders in Kajiado believe that CLARP has been embraced in the community because of its impacts in the lives of its beneficiaries and their families. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrated that CLARP has been positively received by the Maasai community and has played a significant role in attenuating FGM/C, CEFM and TP in Kajiado, while contributing to increasing girls' schooling years. CLARP is replicable as it is currently being implemented in Tanzania. We recommend scaling it up for adoption by stakeholders implementing in other counties that practice FGM/C as a rite of passage in Kenya and across other sub Saharan Africa countries.

Reframing Non-Communicable Diseases and Injuries for Equity in the Era of Universal Health Coverage: Findings and Recommendations from the Kenya NCDI Poverty Commission.

Background: Kenya has implemented a robust response to non-communicable diseases and injuries (NCDIs); however, key gaps in health services for NCDIs still exist in the attainment of Universal Health Coverage (UHC). The Kenya Non-Communicable Diseases and Injury (NCDI) Poverty Commission was established to estimate the burden of NCDIs, determine the availability and coverage of health services, prioritize an expanded set of NCDI conditions, and propose cost-effective and equity-promoting interventions to avert the health and economic consequences of NCDIs in Kenya. Methods: Burden of NCDIs in Kenya was determined using desk review of published literature, estimates from the Global Burden of Disease Study, and secondary analysis of local health surveillance data. Secondary analysis of nationally representative surveys was conducted to estimate current availability and coverage of services by socioeconomic status. The Commission then conducted a structured priority setting process to determine priority NCDI conditions and health sector interventions based on published evidence. Findings: There is a large and diverse burden of NCDIs in Kenya, with the majority of disability-adjusted life-years occurring before age of 40. The poorest wealth quintiles experience a substantially higher deaths rate from NCDIs, lower coverage of diagnosis and treatment for NCDIs, and lower availability of NCDI-related health services. The Commission prioritized 14 NCDIs and selected 34 accompanying interventions for recommendation to achieve UHC. These interventions were estimated to cost $11.76 USD per capita annually, which represents 15% of current total health expenditure. This investment could potentially avert 9,322 premature deaths per year by 2030. Conclusions and Recommendations: An expanded set of priority NCDI conditions and health sector interventions are required in Kenya to achieve UHC, particularly for disadvantaged socioeconomic groups. We provided recommendations for integration of services within existing health services platforms and financing mechanisms and coordination of whole-of-government approaches for the prevention and treatment of NCDIs.

Verbal autopsy interpretation: a comparative analysis of the InterVA model versus physician review in determining causes of death in the Nairobi DSS.

BACKGROUND: Developing countries generally lack complete vital registration systems that can produce cause of death information for health planning in their populations. As an alternative, verbal autopsy (VA) - the process of interviewing family members or caregivers on the circumstances leading to death - is often used by Demographic Surveillance Systems to generate cause of death data. Physician review (PR) is the most common method of interpreting VA, but this method is a time- and resource-intensive process and is liable to produce inconsistent results. The aim of this paper is to explore how a computer-based probabilistic model, InterVA, performs in comparison with PR in interpreting VA data in the Nairobi Urban Health and Demographic Surveillance System (NUHDSS). METHODS: Between August 2002 and December 2008, a total of 1,823 VA interviews were reviewed by physicians in the NUHDSS. Data on these interviews were entered into the InterVA model for interpretation. Cause-specific mortality fractions were then derived from the cause of death data generated by the physicians and by the model. We then estimated the level of agreement between both methods using Kappa statistics. RESULTS: The level of agreement between individual causes of death assigned by both methods was only 35% (kappa = 0.27, 95% CI: 0.25 - 0.30). However, the patterns of mortality as determined by both methods showed a high burden of infectious diseases, including HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and pneumonia, in the study population. These mortality patterns are consistent with existing knowledge on the burden of disease in underdeveloped communities in Africa. CONCLUSIONS: The InterVA model showed promising results as a community-level tool for generating cause of death data from VAs. We recommend further refinement to the model, its adaptation to suit local contexts, and its continued validation with more extensive data from different settings.

Target women: Equity in access to mHealth technology in a non-communicable disease care intervention in Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) constitute 40 million deaths annually. Eighty-percent of these deaths occur in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. MHealth provides a potentially highly effective modality for global public health, however access is poorly understood. The objective of our study was to assess equity in access to mHealth in an NCD intervention in Kenya. METHODS: This is a secondary analysis of a complex NCD intervention targeting slum residents in Kenya. The primary outcomes were: willingness to receive SMS, whether SMS was received, and access to SMS compared to alternative health information modalities. Age, sex, level of education, level of income, type of work, number of hours worked, and home environment were explanatory variables considered. Multivariable regression analyses were used to test for association using likelihood ratio testing. RESULTS: 7,618 individual participants were included in the analysis. The median age was 44 years old. Majority (75%, n = 3,691/ 4,927) had only attended up to primary (elementary) school. Majority reported earning "KShs 7,500 or greater" (27%, n = 1,276/ 4,736). Age and level of income had evidence of association with willingness to receive SMS, and age, sex and number of hours work with whether SMS was received. SMS was the health information modality with highest odds of being accessed in older age groups (OR 4.70, 8.72 and 28.89, for age brackets 60-69, 70-79 and 80 years or older, respectively), among women (OR = 1.86, 95% CI 1.19-2.89), and second only to Baraazas (community gatherings) among those with lowest income. CONCLUSION: Women had the greatest likelihood of receiving SMS. SMS performed equitably well amongst marginalized populations (elderly, women, and low-income) as compared to alternative health information modalities, though sensitization prior to implementation of mHealth interventions may be needed. These findings provide guidance for developing mHealth interventions targeting marginalized populations in these settings.

Identifying gaps in HIV service delivery across the diagnosis-to-treatment cascade: findings from health facility surveys in six sub-Saharan countries.

INTRODUCTION: Despite the rollout of antiretroviral therapy (ART), challenges remain in ensuring timely access to care and treatment for people living with HIV. As part of a multi-country study to investigate HIV mortality, we conducted health facility surveys within 10 health and demographic surveillance system sites across six countries in Eastern and Southern Africa to investigate clinic-level factors influencing (i) use of HIV testing services, (ii) use of HIV care and treatment and (iii) patient retention on ART. METHODS: Health facilities (n = 156) were sampled within 10 surveillance sites: Nairobi and Kisumu (Kenya), Karonga (Malawi), Agincourt and uMkhanyakude (South Africa), Ifakara and Kisesa (Tanzania), Kyamulibwa and Rakai (Uganda) and Manicaland (Zimbabwe). Structured questionnaires were administered to in-charge staff members of HIV testing, prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) and ART units within the facilities. Forty-one indicators influencing uptake and patient retention along the continuum of HIV care were compared across sites using descriptive statistics. RESULTS: The number of facilities surveyed ranged from six in Malawi to 36 in Zimbabwe. Eighty percent were government-run; 73% were lower-level facilities and 17% were district/referral hospitals. Client load varied widely, from less than one up to 65 HIV testing clients per provider per week. Most facilities (>80%) delivered services or interventions that would support patient retention in care such as delivering free services, offering PMTCT within antenatal care, pre-ART monitoring and adherence counselling. Many facilities under-delivered in several areas, however, such as targeted testing for high-risk groups (21%) and mobile testing (36%). There were also intra-site and inter-site differences, including in the delivery of Option B+ (ranging from 6% in Kisumu to 93% in Kyamulibwa), and nurse-led ART initiation (ranging from 50% in Kisesa to 100% in Karonga and Agincourt). Only facilities in Malawi did not require additional lab tests for ART initiation. Stock-outs of HIV test kits and antiretroviral drugs were particularly common in Tanzania. CONCLUSION: We identified a high standard of health facility performance in delivering strategies that may support progression through the continuum of HIV care. HIV testing policy and practice was particularly weak. Inter- and intra-country differences in quality and coverage represent opportunities to improve the delivery of comprehensive services to people living with HIV.