Dynamic evolution of size and colour in the highly specialized Zodarion ant-eating spiders.

Ecological specialists constitute relevant case studies for understanding the mechanisms, potential and limitations of evolution. The species-rich and strictly myrmecophagous spiders of the genus Zodarion show diversified defence mechanisms, including myrmecomorphy of different ant species and nocturnality. Through Hybridization Capture Using RAD Probes (hyRAD), a phylogenomic technique designed for sequencing poorly preserved specimens, we reconstructed a phylogeny of Zodarion using 52 (approx. a third of the nominal) species that cover its phylogenetic and distributional diversity. We then estimated the evolution of body size and colour, traits that have diversified noticeably and are linked to defence mechanisms, across the group. Our genomic matrix of 300 loci led to a well-supported phylogenetic hypothesis that uncovered two main clades inside Zodarion. Ancestral state estimation revealed the highly dynamic evolution of body size and colour across the group, with multiple transitions and convergences in both traits, which we propose is likely indicative of multiple transitions in ant specialization across the genus. Our study will allow the informed targeted selection of Zodarion taxa of special interest for research into the group's remarkable adaptations to ant specialization. It also exemplifies the utility of hyRAD for phylogenetic studies using museum material.

Gene flow assessment helps to distinguish strong genomic structure from speciation in an Iberian ant-eating spider.

Although genomic data is boosting our understanding of evolution, we still lack a solid framework to perform reliable genome-based species delineation. This problem is especially critical in the case of phylogeographically structured organisms, with allopatric populations showing similar divergence patterns as species. Here, we assess the species limits and phylogeography of Zodarion alacre, an ant-eating spider widely distributed across the Iberian Peninsula. We first performed species delimitation based on genome-wide data and then validated these results using additional evidence. A commonly employed species delimitation strategy detected four distinct lineages with almost no admixture, which present allopatric distributions. These lineages showed ecological differentiation but no clear morphological differentiation, and evidence of introgression in a mitochondrial barcode. Phylogenomic networks found evidence of substantial gene flow between lineages. Finally, phylogeographic methods highlighted remarkable isolation by distance and detected evidence of range expansion from south-central Portugal to central-north Spain. We conclude that despite their deep genomic differentiation, the lineages of Z. alacre do not show evidence of complete speciation. Our results likely shed light on why Zodarion is among the most diversified spider genera despite its limited distribution and support the use of gene flow evidence to inform species boundaries.

The evolution and ecology of multiple antipredator defences.

Prey seldom rely on a single type of antipredator defence, often using multiple defences to avoid predation. In many cases, selection in different contexts may favour the evolution of multiple defences in a prey. However, a prey may use multiple defences to protect itself during a single predator encounter. Such "defence portfolios" that defend prey against a single instance of predation are distributed across and within successive stages of the predation sequence (encounter, detection, identification, approach (attack), subjugation and consumption). We contend that at present, our understanding of defence portfolio evolution is incomplete, and seen from the fragmentary perspective of specific sensory systems (e.g., visual) or specific types of defences (especially aposematism). In this review, we aim to build a comprehensive framework for conceptualizing the evolution of multiple prey defences, beginning with hypotheses for the evolution of multiple defences in general, and defence portfolios in particular. We then examine idealized models of resource trade-offs and functional interactions between traits, along with evidence supporting them. We find that defence portfolios are constrained by resource allocation to other aspects of life history, as well as functional incompatibilities between different defences. We also find that selection is likely to favour combinations of defences that have synergistic effects on predator behaviour and prey survival. Next, we examine specific aspects of prey ecology, genetics and development, and predator cognition that modify the predictions of current hypotheses or introduce competing hypotheses. We outline schema for gathering data on the distribution of prey defences across species and geography, determining how multiple defences are produced, and testing the proximate mechanisms by which multiple prey defences impact predator behaviour. Adopting these approaches will strengthen our understanding of multiple defensive strategies.

Population growth and respiration in the dust mite Dermatophagoides farinae under different temperature and humidity regimes.

Dermatophagoides farinae is an important house dust mite species that causes allergies in humans worldwide. In houses, these mites are commonly found in actively used mattresses and pillows, which provide food (i.e. sloughed skin and microorganisms), moisture, and increased temperature for faster mite development. In mattresses, feeding mites prefer the upper sector, as close as possible to the resting human (temperature 32-36 °C, humidity between 55 and 59%). However, mites that are not actively feeding prefer staying at deeper zones of the mattress. Here, we analyzed mite responses to different temperatures (15-35 °C) and relative humidity (62-94% RH) in terms of their population size growth and respiration (CO2 production) using lab mite cultures. The intrinsic rate of population increase had a single maximum at approximately 28 °C and 85% RH. At 30 °C, there were two respiration peaks at RH 90% (smaller peak) and 65% (larger peak). Therefore, there is a mismatch between the optimal temperature/humidity for the population size increase vs. respiration. We propose preliminary hypotheses explaining the two respiration peaks and suggest that future research should be done to elucidate the nature of these peaks.

Phylogenomics and loci dropout patterns of deeply diverged Zodarion ant-eating spiders suggest a high potential of RAD-seq for genus-level spider phylogenetics.

RAD sequencing yields large amounts of genome-wide data at a relatively low cost and without requiring previous taxon-specific information, making it ideal for evolutionary studies of highly diversified and neglected organisms. However, concerns about information decay with phylogenetic distance have discouraged its use for assessing supraspecific relationships. Here, using Double Digest Restriction Associated DNA (ddRAD) data, we perform the first deep-level approach to the phylogeny of Zodarion, a highly diversified spider genus. We explore the impact of loci and taxon filtering across concatenated and multispecies coalescent reconstruction methods and investigate the patterns of information dropout in reference to both the time of divergence and the mitochondrial divergence between taxa. We found that relaxed loci-filtering and nested taxon-filtering strategies maximized the amount of molecular information and improved phylogenetic inference. As expected, there was a clear pattern of allele dropout towards deeper time and mitochondrial divergences, but the phylogenetic signal remained strong throughout the phylogeny. Therefore, we inferred topologies that were almost fully resolved, highly supported, and noticeably congruent between setups and inference methods, which highlights overall inconsistency in the taxonomy of Zodarion. Because Zodarion appears to be among the oldest and most mitochondrially diversified spider genera, our results suggest that ddRAD data show high potential for inferring intra-generic relationships across spiders and probably also in other taxonomic groups.

Ecological specialization and reproductive isolation among closely related sympatric ant-eating spiders.

Biological divergence results from several mechanisms. Defensive mechanisms, such as Batesian mimicry, can cause reproductive isolation via temporal segregation in foraging activity, particularly, in species that closely associate with their model. This seems to be the case of ant-eating spiders, which can be inaccurate Batesian mimics of their prey. Here, we focused on Zodarion nitidum, which has two forms occurring in sympatry, black and yellow. Given the expected noticeable impact of their colour differences on the spiders' interactions with their potential predators and prey, we investigated whether these morphotypes have diverged in other aspects of their biology. We measured the two morphotypes' phenotypic resemblance to a mimetic model, tested whether they were protected from predators, investigated their circadian activity, surveyed the prey they hunted, modelled their distributions, performed crossing experiments and estimated their degree of genetic differentiation. We found that the black morphotype is ant-like, resembling Messor ants, and it was not distinguishable from their ant models by four potential predators. In contrast, the yellow morphotype seems to use predator avoidance as a defensive strategy. Additionally, the two morphotypes differ in their circadian activity, the yellow morphotype being nocturnal and the black one being diurnal. The two morphotypes hunt and associate with different ant prey and possess marked differences in venom composition. Finally, crossing trials showed complete pre-mating isolation between the two morphotypes, but there was no evidence of genetic (mitochondrial data) or environmental niche differentiation. We conclude that the two morphotypes show evidence of a deep differentiation in morphological, behavioural, physiological and ecological traits that evolved together as part of the spider's diverging lifestyles.

Winter activity of Clubiona spiders and their potential for pest control.

Winter-active arthropod predators (like vegetation-dwelling spiders) significantly suppress pest populations during winter in pome fruit orchards in Central Europe. Clubiona spiders are very abundant in orchards and have been observed to be active during winter. Here, we performed laboratory experiments to assess the movement and predation activity of clubionids at low temperatures. In addition, we also assessed prey survival (psyllids and crickets). We revealed that Clubiona spiders actively moved even at a temperature below 0 °C. Pest prey (Cacopsylla sp.) was able to survive at low temperatures, but crickets died at 3 and -1 °C. Overall Clubiona activity was very low but present during the whole observation period of five days. The predation activity of Clubiona declined with lower temperatures for both cricket and pest (Cacopsylla sp.) prey. Nevertheless, 44% and 25% of Clubiona individuals captured and consumed psyllid and cricket prey, respectively, even at the lowest temperature of -1 °C. Our results show that Clubiona spiders are active predators at low temperatures and, therefore, should contribute to the suppression of overwintering pest populations.

Poor performance of DNA barcoding and the impact of RAD loci filtering on the species delimitation of an Iberian ant-eating spider.

Genomic data provide unprecedented power for species delimitation. However, current implementations are still time and resource consuming. In addition, bioinformatic processing is contentious and its impact on downstream analyses is insufficiently understood. Here we employ ddRAD sequencing and a thorough sampling for species delimitation in Zodarion styliferum, a widespread Iberian ant-eating spider. We explore the influence of the loci filtering strategy on the downstream phylogenetic analyses, genomic clustering and coalescent species delimitation. We also assess the accuracy of one mitochondrial (COI) and one nuclear (ITS) barcode for fast and inexpensive species delineation in the group. Our genomic data strongly support two morphologically cryptic but ecologically divergent lineages, mainly restricted to the central-eastern and western parts of the Iberian Peninsula, respectively. Larger matrices with more missing data showed increased genomic diversity, supporting that bioinformatic strategies to maximize matrix completion disproportionately exclude loci with the highest mutation rates. Moderate loci filtering gave the best results across analyses: although larger matrices returned concatenated phylogenies with higher support, middle-sized matrices performed better in genetic structure analyses. COI displayed high diversity and a conspicuous barcode gap, revealing 13 mitochondrial lineages. Mitonuclear discordance is consistent with ancestral isolation in multiple groups, probably in glacial refugia, followed by range expansion and secondary contact that produced genomic homogenization. Several apparently (unidirectionally) introgressed specimens further challenge the accuracy of species identification through mitochondrial barcodes in the group. Conversely, ITS failed to separate both lineages of Z. styliferum. This study shows an extreme case of mitonuclear discordance that highlights the limitations of single molecular barcodes for species delimitation, even in presence of distinct barcode gaps, and brings new light on the effects of parameterization on shallow-divergence studies using RAD data.

Increased speed of movement reduced identification of Batesian ant-mimicking spiders by surrogate predators.

In Batesian mimicry, the mimic gains protection from predators by imitating a noxious model. Some myrmecomorphic species use ants as models as ants have strong defensive capabilities. Ants are highly mobile models, and besides colour, shape, and size, mimics also imitate their movement. Yet, former studies focused mainly on static traits. Here, I tested the hypothesis that artificially increased speed of movement reduces the probability of the mimic being identified. First, images of 14 myrmecomorphic spider species and their models were used for humans to rank their mimetic accuracy. Humans were used as surrogate predators to obtain scores for each mimetic pair. In the second experiment, the effect of movement playback speed on the probability of identification was investigated, again using humans. Videos of mimics were played at different speeds, and the identification probability was recorded. While ants were correctly identified at any playback speed, the identification of myrmecomorphic spiders declined with increasing playback speed. In other words, the latency to correct identification increased with playback speed. Overall, mimics with higher accuracy scores were more difficult to identify while moving. The natural speed of movement of accurate mimics was similar to that of inaccurate ones. Movement is thus an important trait for myrmecomorphic species.

Sharing a bed with mites: preferences of the house dust mite Dermatophagoides farinae in a temperature gradient.

House dust mites inhabit bed mattresses contaminating them with allergens. A strong temperature/moisture gradient exists in mattresses when it is used by humans daily. Here, we studied migration patterns of the mite Dermatophagoides farinae in continuous and time-discontinuous temperature gradients consisting of five sectors with 19-23, 23-28, 28-32, 32-36 and 36-41 °C, containing dye-labeled diets as an indicator of mite presence and feeding. The mites migrated through the sectors and fed on the labeled diets or stayed unfed. The numbers of mites with the same coloration in their guts and the numbers of unfed mites in the sectors were recorded. Unfed mites provided information on short-term temperature preferences. Apart from a control trial, two experiments were performed: (i) a constant 19-41 °C gradient for 24 h, and (ii) alternating cycles of the same temperature gradient (19-41 °C, 8 h) and room temperature (16 h) for 5 days to model the typical daily occupancy of bed by humans. In both experiments, fed mites preferred a sector with 32-36 °C, suggesting that in mattresses, house dust mites prefer to stay as close as possible to the resting human, thus maximizing allergen exposure. However, the number of unfed mites decreased with increased temperatures in the gradient. Experiment (ii) showed that the fed mites remained at the same optimal distance from the heat source, suggesting that they stay at the upper surface of the regularly used mattress, even when human was temporarily absent during the day. Unfed mites apparently hide deeper in mattresses as suggested by their avoidance of increased temperatures.

Transformational Mimicry in a Myrmecomorphic Spider.

Species that are Batesian mimics during postembryonic development shift between mimetic models as they grow in size. However, it has not yet been tested whether these successive mimetic phenotypes are similarly protected from predators. Early-instar phenotypes could represent an inaccurate phenotype or an accurate phenotype because of selection from different predators. Here, we tested the hypotheses of transformational Batesian mimicry in the ant-mimicking jumping spider Leptochestes berolinensis. We quantified the mimetic accuracy of different ontogenetic stages to potential ant models by using a multitrait approach. We measured movement, body profile, body size, and coloration. Analysis revealed adults to be more accurate mimics than juveniles. Adults were similar to smaller morphs of Camponotus or Lasius ants, whereas juveniles were more similar to Lasius and Colobopsis ants. We tested whether predators, mantises, and Pisaura spiders were deceived by mimics after having experience with ant models. These predators never captured any ant or a mimic but always captured the nonmyrmecomorphic spider. We conclude that L. berolinensis is a Batesian mimic of ants undergoing transformational mimicry, with all stages being accurate mimics.

An updated perspective on spiders as generalist predators in biological control.

The role of generalist predators in biological control remains controversial as they may not only reduce pest populations but also disrupt biocontrol exerted by other natural enemies. Here, we focus on spiders as a model group of generalist predators. They are among the most abundant and most diverse natural enemies in agroecosystems. We review their functional traits that influence food-web dynamics and pest suppression at organisational levels ranging from individuals to communities. At the individual and population levels, we focus on hunting strategy, body size, life stage, nutritional target, and personality (i.e., consistent inter-individual differences in behaviour). These functional traits determine the spider trophic niches. We also focus on the functional and numerical response to pest densities and on non-consumptive effects of spiders on pests. At the community level, we review multiple-predator effects and effect of alternative prey on pest suppression. Evidence for a key role of spiders in pest suppression is accumulating. Importantly, recent research has highlighted widespread non-consumptive effects and complex intraguild interactions of spiders. A better understanding of these effects is needed to optimize biocontrol services by spiders in agroecosystems.

Detection of tau-fluvalinate resistance in the mite Varroa destructor based on the comparison of vial test and PCR-RFLP of kdr mutation in sodium channel gene.

Varroa destructor is the major cause of honey bee (Apis mellifera) colony losses. Mite control is limited to several miticides. The overuse of tau-fluvalinate has resulted in resistance via a knockdown resistance (kdr) mutation in the sodium channel gene NaVChs (L925V/I/M). In this study, we used the discriminating concentration of tau-fluvalinate (0.25 µg/mL) to detect the resistance of mites in a bioassay. Further, we verified the presence of the kdr mutation in mites from the bioassay via PCR amplification of a fragment of the voltage-gated sodium channel gene (NaVCh), restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs), and densitometry analyses in pools of surviving or dead mites. Resistance values corresponding to the densitometry of the resistant allele were related to mite survival. In the vial test, the survival of the control group was significantly higher (70.4%) than that of the tau-fluvalinate-treated group (34.3%). Mite survival in the vial test was significantly correlated with the mean proportion of resistance values. Individuals that died after tau-fluvalinate application exhibited an average resistance value of 0.0783, whereas individuals that survived exhibited an average resistance of 0.400. The concentration of tau-fluvalinate in the vials was checked using high performance liquid chromatography under different temperatures and exposure times, and indicates that the stability of tau-fluvalinate stored in the refrigerator (4 ± 1 °C) is at least 14 days. PCR-RFLP of the NaVCh gene fragment verified that the vial test is a suitable, rapid, and cost-effective method for the identification of tau-fluvalinate resistance based on kdr mutation in V. destructor in apiaries.

Trophic niche, capture efficiency and venom profiles of six sympatric ant-eating spider species (Araneae: Zodariidae).

The arms race between specialist predators and their prey has resulted in the evolution of a variety of specific adaptations. In venomous predators, this can include venom composition, particularly if predators are specialized on dangerous prey. Here, we performed an integrative study using six species of highly specialized ant-eating spiders of the genus Zodarion to investigate their phylogeny, realized trophic niche, efficacy in the capture of various ant species and venom composition. Data on natural diet obtained by next-generation sequencing and field observations showed that the six Zodarion species exploit different ant species. Their phylogeny, based on mitochondrial and nuclear genes, correlated with the composition of their natural prey, indicating that closely related Zodarion species specialize on similar ant species. Prey-capture parameters differed among Zodarion species suggesting prey-specific efficacy. Similarly, the venom profiles of both low and high molecular compounds differed among species. Only the profiles of low molecular compounds were correlated with capture efficacy parameters, suggesting that the venom of Zodarion spiders contains prey-specific components. Our study suggests that Iberian Zodarion spiders are specialized on particular ant species.

Venom gland size and venom complexity-essential trophic adaptations of venomous predators: A case study using spiders.

Specialized predators possess a variety of adaptations. In venomous predators, this may include the size of the venom gland and venom composition. It is expected that due to different foraging strategies, predators with a wide trophic niche (generalists) should possess larger venom glands that contain more diversified components than predators with a narrow niche (specialists). We focused on spiders, as the most diversified group of venomous predators, in which a wide variety of trophic strategies have evolved. We conducted a comparative analysis using 40 spider species, in which we measured the size of their venom gland and venom complexity using proteome profiling methods. The species were classified into three trophic groups: generalists, facultative specialists and obligatory specialists. We found that the venom glands of generalists are larger than those of obligatory specialists, which is presumably due to more frequent prey capture by the former. The complexity of venom of peptides (2-15 kDa) and proteins (15-250 kDa) was more diverse in generalists than in specialists. Multivariate analysis of venom revealed significant differences among the three trophic categories only in the complexity of peptides. Our study thus shows that venom gland size and its content have taken different pathways during the evolution of different trophic strategies in spiders. Generalists evolved larger venom glands with more complex composition, whereas obligatory specialists possess smaller glands with less diverse chemical structures.

Resource availability, mating opportunity and sexual selection intensity influence the expression of male alternative reproductive tactics.

The expression of alternative reproductive tactics can be plastic and occur simultaneously depending on cues that vary spatially or temporally. For example, variation in resources and sexual selection intensity is expected to influence the pay-off of each tactic and shape the decision of which tactic to employ. Males of the nuptial gift-giving spider Pisaura mirabilis can adopt three tactics: offering a genuine prey gift, a 'worthless' non-nutritious gift or no gift. We hypothesized that resources and/or male body condition, and mating opportunity and sexual selection intensity, vary over the course of the mating season to shape the co-existence of alternative traits. We measured these variables in the field over two seasons, to investigate the predictions that as the mating season progresses, (i) males become more likely to employ a gift-giving tactic, and (ii) the likelihood of switching from worthless to genuine gifts increases. Prey availability increased over the season and co-varied with the propensity of males to employ the gift-giving tactic, but we found no support for condition-dependent gift giving. Males responded to an increase in female availability by increasing their mating effort (gift production). Furthermore, the frequency of genuine gift use increased with sexual selection intensity, consistent with the assumption that sperm competition intensity increases with time. Our results suggest that the frequency of alternative tactics is shaped by seasonal changes in ecological factors and sexual selection. This leads to relaxed selection for the gift-giving tactic early in the season when females are less choosy and resources more scarce, and increased selection for genuine gifts later in the season driven by mating opportunity and risk of sperm competition.

Venom of prey-specialized spiders is more toxic to their preferred prey: A result of prey-specific toxins.

In specialized predators, a variety of adaptations have evolved to such a level of specificity that they allow very effective exploitation of focal prey. Venom is an essential adaptive trait of predatory venomous species, such as spiders, yet our knowledge of spider venom is incomplete. In agreement with the prey preference hypothesis, we expected that the venom of spider specialists should be more toxic to focal than to alternative prey, because it is composed of prey-specific toxins. Here we used spiders with three types of trophic specializations: specialists that were ant-eating, termite-eating and spider-eating. We compared the efficacy of prey capture of preferred and alternative prey (measured as paralysis latency) with that of related generalists and profiled the venom of the studied species using proteomic methods. We used 22 spider species: six myrmecophagous, two termitophagous, three araneophagous and 11 euryphagous generalist species belonging to different families. We found that ten of the eleven specialist species induced significantly shorter paralysis latency in preferred prey than in alternative prey. Generalists exhibited either similar efficiency on both prey types or slightly higher efficiency on preferred prey. Multivariate analysis of proteomic profiles (peptides and proteins) revealed significant differences between trophic specializations, particularly in peptides. Specialists appear to have venom composed of unique specific compounds as revealed by the multivariate ordination and indicator analysis. These components are likely prey-specific toxins.

Deposition, removal and production site of the amorphous mating plug in the spider Philodromus cespitum.

In order to avoid sperm competition, males of many taxa apply physical barriers, so-called mating plugs, into female genitalia. Females may control which males deposit a plug through pre-copulatory mate choice or by influencing plug efficacy to avoid costs imposed by plugging. However, subsequent suitors might remove the plugs. We investigated behavioural and morphological aspects of plug deposition and removal in a promiscuous spider, Philodromus cespitum (Philodromidae). We performed mating trials to investigate factors affecting plugging. To identify the plug origin, we conducted a morphological analysis using 3D X-ray microtomography and histology of the male copulatory organ and the female genital tract. In P. cespitum, the plug material is produced in the male genital bulb and transferred to the female together with sperm. The copulation is brief and terminated by the female. After mating, plugging material was found in the genital atrium of all females, covering it to a varying degree (10-100%). The extent of coverage was associated with the duration of movements of male copulatory organ connected with sperm transfer (i.e. full haematodochal expansions) and with the number of taps a male delivered with his legs to the female during courtship. Males larger than the female performed more tapping movements. Mating trials with plugged females revealed that males could remove plugs partly or entirely. Removal success increased with increasing foreleg length ratio between the male who removed the plug and the one who deposited it. We discuss our results in the light of the potential female control of plug deposition and removal.

Comparison of the capture efficiency, prey processing, and nutrient extraction in a generalist and a specialist spider predator.

Predators are traditionally classified as generalists and specialists based on the presence of adaptations that increase efficiency of prey capture and consumption and selection of particular prey types. Nevertheless, empirical evidence comparing foraging efficiency between generalist and specialist carnivores is scarce. We compared the prey-capture and feeding efficiency in a generalist and a specialist (araneophagous) spider predator. By using two related species, the generalist Harpactea rubicunda (Dysderidae) and the specialist Nops cf. variabilis (Caponiidae), we evaluated their fundamental trophic niche by studying the acceptance of different prey. Then, we compared their predatory behavior, efficiency in capturing prey of varying sizes, feeding efficiency, and nutrient extraction. Nops accepted only spiders as prey, while Harpactea accepted all offered prey, confirming that Nops is stenophagous, while Harpactea is euryphagous. Further, Nops displayed more specialized (stereotyped) capture behavior than Harpactea, suggesting that Nops is a specialist, while Harpactea is a generalist. The specialist immobilized prey faster, overcame much larger prey, and gained more mass (due to feeding on larger prey) than the generalist. Both the specialist and the generalist spider extracted more proteins than lipids, but the extraction of macronutrients in the specialist was achieved mainly by consuming the prosoma of the focal prey. We show that the specialist has more efficient foraging strategy than the generalist.

The Behavioral Type of a Top Predator Drives the Short-Term Dynamic of Intraguild Predation.

Variation in behavior among individual top predators (i.e., the behavioral type) can strongly shape pest suppression in intraguild predation (IGP). However, the effect of a top predator's behavioral type-namely, foraging aggressiveness (number of killed divided by prey time) and prey choosiness (preference degree for certain prey type)-on the dynamic of IGP may interact with the relative abundances of top predator, mesopredator, and pest. We investigated the influence of the top predator's behavioral type on the dynamic of IGP in a three-species system with a top predator spider, a mesopredator spider, and a psyllid pest using a simulation model. The model parameters were estimated from laboratory experiments and field observations. The top predator's behavioral type altered the food-web dynamics in a context-dependent manner. The system with an aggressive/nonchoosy top predator, without prey preferences between pest and mesopredator, suppressed the pest more when the top predator to mesopredator abundance ratio was high. In contrast, the system with a timid/choosy top predator that preferred the pest to the mesopredator was more effective when the ratio was low. Our results show that the behavioral types and abundances of interacting species need to be considered together when studying food-web dynamics, because they evidently interact. To improve biocontrol efficiency of predators, research on the alteration of their behavioral types is needed.