Possible Exposures Among Mpox Patients Without Reported Male-to-Male Sexual Contact - Six U.S. Jurisdictions, November 1-December 14, 2022.

The extent to which the 2022 mpox outbreak has affected persons without a recent history of male-to-male sexual contact (MMSC) is not well understood. During November 1-December 14, 2022, CDC partnered with six jurisdictional health departments to characterize possible exposures among mpox patients aged ≥18 years who did not report MMSC during the 3 weeks preceding symptom onset. Among 52 patients included in the analysis, 14 (27%) had a known exposure to a person with mpox, including sexual activity and other close intimate contact (eight) and household contact (six). Among 38 (73%) patients with no known exposure to a person with mpox, self-reported activities before illness onset included sexual activity and other close intimate contact (17; 45%), close face-to-face contact (14; 37%), attending large social gatherings (11; 29%), and being in occupational settings involving close skin-to-skin contact (10; 26%). These findings suggest that sexual activity remains an important route of mpox exposure among patients who do not report MMSC.

Mpox Cases Among Cisgender Women and Pregnant Persons - United States, May 11-November 7, 2022.

Monkeypox (mpox) cases in the 2022 outbreak have primarily occurred among adult gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (MSM); however, other populations have also been affected (1). To date, data on mpox in cisgender women and pregnant persons have been limited. Understanding transmission in these populations is critical for mpox prevention. In addition, among pregnant persons, Monkeypox virus can be transmitted to the fetus during pregnancy or to the neonate through close contact during or after birth (2-5). Adverse pregnancy outcomes, including spontaneous abortion and stillbirth, have been reported in previous mpox outbreaks (3). During May 11-November 7, 2022, CDC and U.S. jurisdictional health departments identified mpox in 769 cisgender women aged ≥15 years, representing 2.7% of all reported mpox cases.† Among cases with available data, 44% occurred in cisgender women who were non-Hispanic Black or African American (Black), 25% who were non-Hispanic White (White), and 23% who were Hispanic or Latino (Hispanic). Among cisgender women with available data, 73% reported sexual activity or close intimate contact as the likely route of exposure, with mpox lesions most frequently reported on the legs, arms, and genitals. Twenty-three mpox cases were reported in persons who were pregnant or recently pregnant§; all identified as cisgender women based on the mpox case report form.¶ Four pregnant persons required hospitalization for mpox. Eleven pregnant persons received tecovirimat, and no adverse reactions were reported. Continued studies on mpox transmission risks in populations less commonly affected during the outbreak, including cisgender women and pregnant persons, are important to assess and understand the impact of mpox on sexual, reproductive, and overall health.

Epidemiologic and Clinical Characteristics of Monkeypox Cases - United States, May 17-July 22, 2022.

Monkeypox, a zoonotic infection caused by an orthopoxvirus, is endemic in parts of Africa. On August 4, 2022, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services declared the U.S. monkeypox outbreak, which began on May 17, to be a public health emergency (1,2). After detection of the first U.S. monkeypox case), CDC and health departments implemented enhanced monkeypox case detection and reporting. Among 2,891 cases reported in the United States through July 22 by 43 states, Puerto Rico, and the District of Columbia (DC), CDC received case report forms for 1,195 (41%) cases by July 27. Among these, 99% of cases were among men; among men with available information, 94% reported male-to-male sexual or close intimate contact during the 3 weeks before symptom onset. Among the 88% of cases with available data, 41% were among non-Hispanic White (White) persons, 28% among Hispanic or Latino (Hispanic) persons, and 26% among non-Hispanic Black or African American (Black) persons. Forty-two percent of persons with monkeypox with available data did not report the typical prodrome as their first symptom, and 46% reported one or more genital lesions during their illness; 41% had HIV infection. Data suggest that widespread community transmission of monkeypox has disproportionately affected gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men and racial and ethnic minority groups. Compared with historical reports of monkeypox in areas with endemic disease, currently reported outbreak-associated cases are less likely to have a prodrome and more likely to have genital involvement. CDC and other federal, state, and local agencies have implemented response efforts to expand testing, treatment, and vaccination. Public health efforts should prioritize gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men, who are currently disproportionately affected, for prevention and testing, while addressing equity, minimizing stigma, and maintaining vigilance for transmission in other populations. Clinicians should test patients with rash consistent with monkeypox,† regardless of whether the rash is disseminated or was preceded by prodrome. Likewise, although most cases to date have occurred among gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men, any patient with rash consistent with monkeypox should be considered for testing. CDC is continually evaluating new evidence and tailoring response strategies as information on changing case demographics, clinical characteristics, transmission, and vaccine effectiveness become available.§.

Epidemiologic and Clinical Features of Children and Adolescents Aged <18 Years with Monkeypox - United States, May 17-September 24, 2022.

Data on monkeypox in children and adolescents aged <18 years are limited (1,2). During May 17­September 24, 2022, a total of 25,038 monkeypox cases were reported in the United States,† primarily among adult gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (3). During this period, CDC and U.S. jurisdictional health departments identified Monkeypox virus (MPXV) infections in 83 persons aged <18 years, accounting for 0.3% of reported cases. Among 28 children aged 0­12 years with monkeypox, 64% were boys, and most had direct skin-to-skin contact with an adult with monkeypox who was caring for the child in a household setting. Among 55 adolescents aged 13­17 years, most were male (89%), and male-to-male sexual contact was the most common presumed exposure route (66%). Most children and adolescents with monkeypox were non-Hispanic Black or African American (Black) (47%) or Hispanic or Latino (Hispanic) (35%). Most (89%) were not hospitalized, none received intensive care unit (ICU)­level care, and none died. Monkeypox in children and adolescents remains rare in the United States. Ensuring equitable access to monkeypox vaccination, testing, and treatment is a critical public health priority. Vaccination for adolescents with risk factors and provision of prevention information for persons with monkeypox caring for children might prevent additional infections.

Hepatitis A Virus Infections Among Men Who Have Sex with Men - Eight U.S. States, 2017-2018.

During 1995-2011, the overall incidence of hepatitis A decreased by 95% in the United States from 12 cases per 100,000 population during 1995 to 0.4 cases per 100,000 population during 2011, and then plateaued during 2012─2015. The incidence increased by 294% during 2016-2018 compared with the incidence during 2013-2015, with most cases occurring among populations at high risk for hepatitis A infection, including persons who use illicit drugs (injection and noninjection), persons who experience homelessness, and men who have sex with men (MSM) (1-3). Previous outbreaks among persons who use illicit drugs and MSM led to recommendations issued in 1996 by the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) for routine hepatitis A vaccination of persons in these populations (4). Despite these long-standing recommendations, vaccination coverage rates among MSM remain low (5). In 2017, the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene contacted CDC after public health officials noted an increase in hepatitis A infections among MSM. Laboratory testing* of clinical specimens identified strains of the hepatitis A virus (HAV) that subsequently matched strains recovered from MSM in other states. During January 1, 2017-October 31, 2018, CDC received reports of 260 cases of hepatitis A among MSM from health departments in eight states, a substantial increase from the 16 cases reported from all 50 states during 2013-2015. Forty-eight percent (124 of 258) of MSM patients were hospitalized for a median of 3 days. No deaths were reported. In response to these cases, CDC supported state and local health departments with public health intervention efforts to decrease HAV transmission among MSM populations. These efforts included organizing multistate calls among health departments to share information, providing guidance on developing targeted outreach and managing supplies for vaccine campaigns, and conducting laboratory testing of clinical specimens. Targeted outreach for MSM to increase awareness about hepatitis A infection and improve access to vaccination services, such as providing convenient locations for vaccination, are needed to prevent outbreaks among MSM.

Transmission of varicella zoster virus from individuals with herpes zoster or varicella in school and day care settings.

BACKGROUND: Because the varicella incidence has declined following varicella vaccine licensure, herpes zoster (HZ) cases may play a larger role in varicella zoster virus (VZV) transmission. We investigated how HZ and varicella cases contribute to the varicella incidence in schools and day care centers. METHODS: Surveillance data collected in Philadelphia during September 2003-June 2010 were analyzed. A varicella case was considered to be sporadic if it was reported from a school or day care facility >6 weeks after or ≥10 days before other reports of VZV transmission. A varicella case was considered to be secondary if it occurred 10-21 days after report of a case of HZ or sporadic varicella. Analysis compared VZV transmission from individuals with HZ or sporadic varicella, stratified by varicella vaccination status and disease severity. RESULTS: Of 290 HZ cases reported, 27 (9%) resulted in 84 secondary varicella cases. Of 1358 sporadic varicella cases reported, 205 (15%) resulted in 564 secondary varicella cases. Approximately half of the HZ and sporadic varicella cases resulted in single secondary cases. The proportion of individuals who had secondary cases with mild disease was similar for those exposed to HZ and those exposed to varicella (70% and 72%, respectively). VZV transmission was highest from unvaccinated individuals with sporadic varicella (P < .01). CONCLUSIONS: VZV transmission from individuals with HZ contributes to varicella morbidity. More research is needed to understand risk factors and guide recommendations for preventing VZV transmission from individuals with HZ.

The burden of gastroenteritis outbreaks in long-term care settings in Philadelphia, 2009-2018.

OBJECTIVE: Gastroenteritis causes significant morbidity and mortality in long-term care facility (LTCF) residents, a growing population within the United States. We set out to better understand gastroenteritis outbreaks in LTCF by identifying outbreak and facility characteristics associated with outbreak incidence as well as outbreak duration and size. DESIGN: We conducted a retrospective cross-sectional study on LTCFs in Philadelphia County from 2009 to 2018. Outbreak characteristics and interventions were extracted from Philadelphia Department of Public Health (PDPH) database and quality data on all LTCFs was extracted from Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services Nursing Home Compare database. RESULTS: We identified 121 gastroenteritis outbreaks in 49 facilities. Numbers of affected patients ranged from 2 to 211 patients (median patient illness rate, 17%). Staff were reported ill in 94 outbreaks (median staff illness rate, 5%). Outbreak facilities were associated with higher occupancy rates (91% vs 88%; P = .033) and total bed numbers (176 vs 122; P = .071) compared to nonoutbreak facilities. Higher rates of staff illness were associated with prolonged outbreaks (13% vs 4%; P < .001) and higher patient illness rates (9% vs 4%; P = .012). Prolonged outbreaks were associated with lower frequency of cohorting for outbreak management (13% vs 41%; P = .046). CONCLUSION: This study is the largest published analysis of gastroenteritis outbreaks in LTCFs. Facility characteristics and staff disease activity were associated with more severe outbreaks. Heightened surveillance for gastrointestinal symptoms among staff and increased use of cohorting might reduce the risk of prolonged gastroenteritis outbreaks in LTCF.

Varicella Outbreak Surveillance in Schools in Sentinel Jurisdictions, 2012-2015.

BACKGROUND: In 2007, a routine second dose of varicella vaccine was recommended in the United States for children aged 4 to 6 years to better control varicella-zoster virus circulation and outbreaks. Sentinel varicella outbreak surveillance was established to assess feasibility of surveillance and describe outbreaks that are occurring. METHODS: Through the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Epidemiology Laboratory Capacity funding, health departments conducted active surveillance for varicella outbreaks in schools from 2012 to 2015. Outbreaks of varicella were defined as ≥5 cases in a school within at least 1 incubation period (21 days). School nurses, healthcare providers, or laboratories reported cases and outbreaks of varicella to health departments; demographic, vaccination, and clinical data were collected. RESULTS: Georgia, Houston, Maine, Minnesota, New York City, and Philadelphia participated in all 3 years; Puerto Rico and West Virginia participated in 2012 to 2013; and Kansas and Arkansas participated in 2014 to 2015. Twenty-nine outbreaks including 262 cases were reported. The median size of the outbreaks was 7 cases (range, 5-31 cases), and the median duration was 31 days (range, 4-100 days). Of the case-patients associated with larger outbreaks (≥8 cases), 55.4% were unvaccinated, and 15.7% and 18.1% had received 1 or 2 doses of vaccine, respectively. In small outbreaks (5-7 cases), 33.3% of case-patients were unvaccinated, and 16.7% and 38.5% had received 1 or 2 doses of vaccine, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The majority of cases associated with outbreaks occurred in undervaccinated children (unvaccinated and 1-dose vaccine recipients). Outbreaks with a greater proportion of 2-dose vaccine recipients were smaller. Varicella outbreak surveillance is feasible, and continued monitoring of outbreaks remains important for describing the epidemiology of varicella during the 2-dose varicella vaccination program.

Validity of self-reported varicella disease history in pregnant women attending prenatal clinics.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to assess the validity of self-reported history for varicella disease relative to serological evidence of varicella immunity in pregnant women attending antenatal care at clinics located in two diverse geographical locations in the U.S. (Antelope Valley, California, and Philadelphia) with high varicella vaccination coverage. METHODS: Pregnant women attending prenatal care appointments who needed blood drawn as part of their routine care were eligible to participate. Self-reported varicella disease history was obtained via questionnaire. Varicella serostatus was determined using a whole-cell enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to test for varicella zoster virus-specific immunoglobulin G (VZV IgG) antibodies. RESULTS: Of the 309 study participants from Antelope Valley and the 528 participants from Philadelphia who self-reported having had chickenpox disease, 308 (99.7%; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 98.2, 100) and 517 (97.9%; 95% CI: 96.3, 99.0), respectively, had serological evidence of immunity to varicella. Only 6.8% (95% CI: 3.9, 11.0) and 17.4% (95% CI: 13.1, 22.5) of women who self-reported having a negative or uncertain varicella disease history in Antelope Valley and Philadelphia, respectively, were seronegative for varicella antibodies. CONCLUSION: Despite the dramatic changes in the epidemiology of varicella that have occurred since 1995 due to the introduction and subsequent widespread use of the varicella vaccine, self-reported history of varicella continues to be a strong predictor of VZV IgG antibodies in pregnant women. Negative or uncertain history remains poorly predictive of negative serostatus.

Varicella Vaccine Effectiveness in Preventing Community Transmission in the 2-Dose Era.

OBJECTIVES: We examined overall and incremental effectiveness of 2-dose varicella vaccination in preventing community transmission of varicella among children aged 4 to 18 years in 2 active surveillance sites. One-dose varicella vaccine effectiveness (VE) was examined in those aged 1 to 18 years. METHODS: From May 2009 through June 2011, varicella cases identified during active surveillance in Antelope Valley, CA and Philadelphia, PA were enrolled into a matched case-control study. Matched controls within 2 years of the patient's age were selected from immunization registries. A standardized questionnaire was administered to participants' parents, and varicella vaccination history was obtained from health care provider, immunization registry, or parent records. We used conditional logistic regression to estimate varicella VE against clinically diagnosed and laboratory-confirmed varicella. RESULTS: A total of 125 clinically diagnosed varicella cases and 408 matched controls were enrolled. Twenty-nine cases were laboratory confirmed. One-dose VE (1-dose versus unvaccinated) was 75.6% (95% confidence interval [CI], 38.7%-90.3%) in preventing any clinically diagnosed varicella and 78.1% (95% CI, 12.7%-94.5%) against moderate or severe, clinically diagnosed disease (≥50 lesions). Among subjects aged ≥4 years, 2-dose VE (2-dose versus unvaccinated) was 93.6% (95% CI, 75.6%-98.3%) against any varicella and 97.9% (95% CI, 83.0%-99.7%) against moderate or severe varicella. Incremental effectiveness (2-dose versus 1-dose) was 87.5% against clinically diagnosed varicella and 97.3% against laboratory-confirmed varicella. CONCLUSIONS: Two-dose varicella vaccination offered better protection against varicella from community transmission among school-aged children compared with 1-dose vaccination.

Varicella outbreak in a daycare: challenges and opportunities for preventing varicella outbreaks in this setting.

As a result of single-dose varicella vaccination, daycare outbreaks have become rare. We investigated a daycare outbreak resulting from a misdiagnosed varicella case in an unvaccinated attendee. Of 25 attendees aged 12-32 months without evidence of immunity, 7 (28%) were unvaccinated due to religious/philosophical opposition or recent 1st birthday. Single-dose vaccination reduced disease by 92% compared with no vaccination.

Comparing active and passive varicella surveillance in Philadelphia, 2005-2010: recommendations for the transition to nationwide passive varicella disease surveillance.

OBJECTIVE: The Philadelphia Department of Public Health (PDPH) conducts active surveillance for varicella in West Philadelphia. For its approximately 300 active surveillance sites, PDPH mandates biweekly reports of varicella (including zero cases) and performs intensive case investigations. Elsewhere in Philadelphia, surveillance sites passively report varicella cases, and abbreviated investigations are conducted. We used active varicella surveillance program data to inform the transition to nationwide passive varicella surveillance. METHODS: We compared classification of reported cases, varicella disease incidence, and reporting completeness for active and passive surveillance areas for 2005-2010. We assessed reporting completeness using capture-recapture analysis of 2- to 18-year-old cases reported by schools/daycare centers and health-care providers. RESULTS: From 2005 to 2010, PDPH received 3,280 passive and 969 active surveillance varicella case reports. Most passive surveillance reports were classified as probable cases (18% confirmed, 56% probable, and 26% excluded), whereas nearly all of the active surveillance reports were either confirmed or excluded (36% confirmed, 11% probable, and 53% excluded). Overall incidence rates calculated using confirmed/probable cases were similar in the active and passive surveillance areas. Detection of laboratory-confirmed, breakthrough, and moderate-to-severe cases was equivalent for both surveillance areas. CONCLUSIONS: Although active surveillance for varicella results in better classified cases, passive surveillance provides comparable data for monitoring disease trends in breakthrough and moderate-to-severe varicella. To further improve passive surveillance in the two-dose-varicella vaccine era, jurisdictions should consider conducting periodic enhanced surveillance, encouraging laboratory testing, and collecting additional varicella-specific variables for passive surveillance.

Impact of a routine two-dose varicella vaccination program on varicella epidemiology.

OBJECTIVE: One-dose varicella vaccination for children was introduced in the United States in 1995. In 2006, a second dose was recommended to further decrease varicella disease and outbreaks. We describe the impact of the 2-dose vaccination program on varicella incidence, severity, and outbreaks in 2 varicella active surveillance areas. METHODS: We examined varicella incidence rates and disease characteristics in Antelope Valley (AV), CA, and West Philadelphia, PA, and varicella outbreak characteristics in AV during 1995-2010. RESULTS: In 2010, varicella incidence was 0.3 cases per 1000 population in AV and 0.1 cases per 1000 population in West Philadelphia: 76% and 67% declines, respectively, since 2006 and 98% declines in both sites since 1995; incidence declined in all age groups during 2006-2010. From 2006-2010, 61.7% of case patients in both surveillance areas had been vaccinated with 1 dose of varicella vaccine and 7.5% with 2 doses. Most vaccinated case patients had <50 lesions with no statistically significant differences among 1- and 2-dose cases (62.8% and 70.3%, respectively). Varicella-related hospitalizations during 2006-2010 declined >40% compared with 2002-2005 and >85% compared with 1995-1998. Twelve varicella outbreaks occurred in AV during 2007-2010, compared with 47 during 2003-2006 and 236 during 1995-1998 (P < .01). CONCLUSIONS: Varicella incidence, hospitalizations, and outbreaks in 2 active surveillance areas declined substantially during the first 5 years of the 2-dose varicella vaccination program. Declines in incidence across all ages, including infants who are not eligible for varicella vaccination, and adults, in whom vaccination levels are low, provide evidence of the benefit of high levels of immunity in the population.

Validity of medical record documented varicella-zoster virus among unvaccinated cohorts.

BACKGROUND: A varicella diagnosis or verification of disease history by any healthcare provider is currently accepted for determining evidence of immunity by the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). OBJECTIVE: To examine the accuracy of medical record (MR) documented varicella history as a measure of varicella-zoster virus (VZV) immunity among unvaccinated individuals born after 1980. We also assessed methods to practically implement ACIP guidelines to verify varicella history using medical records. STUDY DESIGN: As part of a larger cross-sectional study conducted at three Philadelphia clinics from 2004-2006, we recruited 536 unvaccinated patients aged 5-19 y (birth years: 1985-2001). Varicella history was obtained from three sources: parent/patient interview, any MR documentation (sick and well visits) and MR documentation of a sick visit for varicella. All participants were tested for VZV IgG. For each source and three age groups (5-9, 10-14, 15-19 y old), positive predictive value (PPV) was calculated. Specificity of varicella history was compared between different sources using McNemar's Chi-square. RESULTS: Among participants aged 5-9, 10-14 and 15-19 y the PPV for any MR documentation and sick visit diagnosis were 96% and 100%, 92% and 97%, and 99% and 100%, respectively. The specificity for sick visit documentation was higher than any MR documentation and patient/parent recall among all age groups; however, these differences were only statistically significant when comparing sick visit documentation to parent/patient recall for 10-14 y olds. CONCLUSION: Sick visit documentation of varicella in the MR is an accurate predictor of varicella seropositivity and useful for confirming disease history among unvaccinated persons (birth years: 1985-2001). This method is a practical way to verify varicella history using the ACIP guidelines.

Knowledge, attitudes, and practices for diagnosing breakthrough varicella in the outpatient setting.

OBJECTIVES: We assessed provider knowledge, attitudes, and practices for the management of breakthrough varicella and identified barriers to implementation of laboratory testing and reporting. METHODS: We surveyed 145 health-care providers (HCPs) from 30 pediatric practices in Philadelphia who did not have a history of laboratory testing for breakthrough varicella. The self-administered survey instrument collected information on clinicians' practices for management of children presenting with rash, infection-control strategies, reporting to public health agencies, and laboratory testing. RESULTS: Among the 144 HCPs who completed the survey, 73 (51%) had practiced for more than 10 years. While 115 HCPs (80%) would elect to evaluate a child with rash in the office, only 19 (13%) would submit diagnostics. When patients had a known recent exposure to varicella, 84 HCPs (58%) would use laboratory tests: 40% would use direct fluorescent antibody staining on a specimen from a cutaneous lesion, 24% would use polymerase chain reaction on a lesion specimen, 21% would use acute and convalescent serology, and 10% would use other tests. While waiting for test results, 82 HCPs (57%) would advise that the child be kept at home, 39 (27%) would notify the local health department, and 33 (23%) would inform the school nurse. CONCLUSION: As varicella becomes increasingly uncommon, laboratory confirmation becomes more critical for appropriate diagnosis, similar to poliomyelitis and measles. Our findings suggest that HCPs need further education regarding laboratory confirmation, containment, and reporting of breakthrough varicella.

Incremental effectiveness of second dose varicella vaccination for outbreak control at an elementary school in Philadelphia, pennsylvania, 2006.

BACKGROUND: In 2006, the Philadelphia Department of Public Health conducted an investigation of a varicella outbreak at an elementary school in which second-dose vaccination for outbreak control (VOC) was implemented. We evaluated the effectiveness of this intervention. METHODS: Self-administered questionnaires collected varicella disease and vaccination information. Students eligible for second-dose VOC were 1-dose vaccine recipients without prior varicella disease. A breakthrough varicella case was defined as a maculopapulovesicular rash in a student with onset >42 days after 1-dose vaccination without other apparent cause. Vaccine effectiveness was evaluated using survival analysis techniques and analyzed by vaccine status (first dose versus second dose). Multivariable Cox proportional hazard models were used to identify statistical interactions and adjust for confounders. RESULTS: The questionnaire response rate was 92% (342/370). Of the 286 eligible students, 187 (65%) received a second-dose VOC. The crude attack rate was 9/187 (5%) among second-dose VOC recipients; 43/99 (43%) among 1-dose recipients, and 5/6 (83%) among unvaccinated students. Second-dose VOC recipients had milder rashes, compared with 1-dose or unvaccinated students. The adjusted incremental second-dose vaccine effectiveness was 76% (95% confidence interval: 44%-90%) for students with classroom exposure. Incremental effectiveness was similar (79%) when we extended the immune response time from 4 days to 7 days after second-dose VOC. CONCLUSIONS: Second-dose VOC resulted in a substantial reduction in varicella incidence for students with classroom exposure. Until high rates of routine second-dose vaccine coverage are achieved, clinicians should consider second-dose VOC an appropriate intervention to reduce disease transmission in institution-based outbreaks.

Validity of reported varicella history as a marker for varicella zoster virus immunity among unvaccinated children, adolescents, and young adults in the post-vaccine licensure era.

OBJECTIVES: We assessed the validity of reported varicella history as a marker for varicella zoster virus immunity among unvaccinated persons 1 to 29 years of age, and we examined varicella disease characteristics associated with varicella zoster virus immunity among those reporting positive histories. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study at 7 community-based sites in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, between June 2004 and May 2006 and recruited 1476 participants 1 to 29 years of age who had not been vaccinated against varicella. Sensitivity, specificity, and positive predictive value were determined by comparing self-reported or parent-reported varicella histories from a standardized study interview with varicella zoster virus immunoglobulin G serological results for each participant. We performed multivariate logistic regression analyses to determine which disease characteristics best predicted seropositivity. RESULTS: The sensitivity of reported varicella history was highest (81%-89%) among participants > or =10 years of age, whereas specificity was highest among participants 1 to 4 years of age (99%) and > or =20 years (88%). Reported varicella history was highly predictive of seropositivity (>95%) only among participants > or =15 years of age. For participants 10 to 14 years of age, parental reports of a generalized itchy rash with 1 of the following were highly predictive of seropositivity: varicella transmission to another household member or being raised in a household with no other children. Among participants < or =9 years of age, no combination of disease characteristics was both highly predictive of seropositivity and common. CONCLUSIONS: The validity of reported varicella history varies according to age, and a reported history is no longer highly predictive of seropositivity among cohorts born since 1994 (participants < or =9 years of age). Universal varicella vaccination, regardless of history, for these children should be considered, as should simplified criteria for varicella zoster virus immunity among unvaccinated persons born before 1994.

Varicella disease among vaccinated persons: clinical and epidemiological characteristics, 1997-2005.

Approximately 1 in every 5 children who receives 1 dose of varicella vaccine may develop varicella disease, also known as breakthrough disease, if exposed to varicella-zoster virus. Currently, in communities with high vaccination coverage, varicella cases mostly occur in vaccinated individuals. We report on the first population-based description of the clinical and epidemiological characteristics of varicella in populations with increasing vaccine coverage between 1997 and 2005. In vaccinated children 1-14 years of age, varicella was most often mild and modified; the atypical disease presentation may result in diagnostic challenges to health care providers. However, despite the generally mild nature of these cases, approximately 25% caused >50 lesions, and some resulted in serious complications similar to those occurring in unvaccinated individuals. Continued surveillance of the risk and characteristics of breakthrough disease will be needed, to monitor the effect of the new 2-dose vaccine recommendation for children.

Varicella among adults: data from an active surveillance project, 1995-2005.

We report detailed population-based data on varicella among adults. In 2 US varicella active surveillance sites with high vaccine coverage among young children, the incidence of varicella among adults declined 74% during 1995-2005. A low proportion (3%) of adults with varicella had been vaccinated, with no improvement over the decade of program implementation, suggesting that the decline was likely secondary to herd-immunity effects. Compared with children, adults had more severe varicella in terms of both clinical presentation and frequency of complications. However, <30% of adults with varicella were treated with acyclovir. Among adolescents, illness severity was intermediate between that in children and adults. Varicella cases are preventable through vaccination. As we enter the second decade of the varicella vaccination program in the United States, we need to ensure that susceptible adolescents and adults are adequately protected from varicella by vaccination and that those who acquire varicella are appropriately treated with effective antiviral treatment.

Changing varicella epidemiology in active surveillance sites--United States, 1995-2005.

Significant reductions in varicella incidence were reported from 1995 to 2000 in the varicella active surveillance sites of Antelope Valley (AV), California, and West Philadelphia (WP), Pennsylvania. We examined incidence rates, median age, and vaccination status of case patients for 1995-2005. Coverage data were from the National Immunization Survey. By 2005, coverage among children 19-35 months of age reached 92% (AV) and 94% (WP); 57% and 64% of case patients in AV and WP, respectively, were vaccinated; and varicella incidence declined by 89.8% in AV and 90.4% in WP. Incidence declined in all age groups, especially among children <10 years of age in both sites and among adolescents 10-14 years of age in WP. In AV, since 2000, the incidence among adolescents 10-14 and 15-19 years of age increased. Implementation of school requirements through 10th grade in WP may explain the differences in the decline in incidence among adolescents. Continued surveillance will be important to monitor the impact that the 2-dose vaccine policy in children has on varicella epidemiology.