Effect of infant feeding practices on iron status in a cohort study of Bolivian infants.

BACKGROUND: Iron deficiency (ID) is the most common micronutrient deficiency worldwide, with potentially severe consequences on child neurodevelopment. Though exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) is recommended for 6 months, breast milk has low iron content. This study aimed to estimate the effect of the length of EBF on iron status at 6 - 8 months of age among a cohort of Bolivian infants. METHODS: Mother-infant pairs were recruited from 2 hospitals in El Alto, Bolivia, and followed from one through 6 - 8 months of age. Singleton infants > 34 weeks gestational age, iron-sufficient at baseline, and completing blood draws at 2 and 6 - 8 months of age were eligible for inclusion (N = 270). Ferritin was corrected for the effect of inflammation. ID was defined as inflammation-corrected ferritin < 12 µg/L, and anemia was defined as altitude-corrected hemoglobin < 11 g/dL; IDA was defined as ID plus anemia. The effect of length of EBF (infant received only breast milk with no other liquids or solids, categorized as < 4, 4 - 6, and > 6 months) was assessed for ID, IDA, and anemia (logistic regression) and ferritin (Fer) and hemoglobin (Hb, linear regression). RESULTS: Low iron status was common among infants at 6 - 8 months: 56% of infants were ID, 76% were anemic, and 46% had IDA. EBF of 4 months and above was significantly associated with ID as compared with EBF <  4 months (4 - 6 months: OR 2.0 [1.1 - 3.4]; > 6 months: 3.3 [1.0 - 12.3]), but not with IDA (4 - 6 months: OR 1.4 [0.8 - 2.4]; > 6 months: 2.2 [0.7 - 7.4]), or anemia (4 - 6 months: OR 1.4 [0.7 - 2.5]; > 6 months: 1.5 [0.7 - 7.2]). Fer and Hb concentrations were significantly lower with increasing months of EBF. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest a relationship between prolonged EBF and ID, but are not sufficient to support changes to current breastfeeding recommendations. More research is needed in diverse populations, including exploration of early interventions to address infant IDA.

Using a monitoring and evaluation framework to improve study efficiency and quality during a prospective cohort study in infants receiving rotavirus vaccination in El Alto, Bolivia: the Infant Nutrition, Inflammation, and Diarrheal Illness (NIDI) study.

BACKGROUND: Implementing rigorous epidemiologic studies in low-resource settings involves challenges in participant recruitment and follow-up (e.g., mobile populations, distrust), biological sample collection (e.g., cold-chain, laboratory equipment scarcity) and data collection (e.g., literacy, staff training, and infrastructure). This article describes the use of a monitoring and evaluation (M&E) framework to improve study efficiency and quality during participant engagement, and biological sample and data collection in a longitudinal cohort study of Bolivian infants. METHODS: The study occurred between 2013 and 2015 in El Alto, Bolivia, a high-altitude, urban, low-resource community. The study's M&E framework included indicators for participant engagement (e.g., recruitment, retention, safety), biological sample (e.g., stool and blood), and data (e.g., anthropometry, questionnaires) collection and quality. Monitoring indicators were measured regularly throughout the study and used for course correction, communication, and staff retraining. RESULTS: Participant engagement indicators suggested that enrollment objectives were met (461 infants), but 15% loss-to-follow-up resulted in only 364 infants completing the study. Over the course of the study, there were four study-related adverse events (minor swelling and bruising related to a blood draw) and five severe adverse events (infant deaths) not related to study participation. Biological sample indicators demonstrated two blood samples collected from 95% (333 of 350 required) infants and stool collected for 61% of reported infant diarrhea episodes. Anthropometry data quality indicators were extremely high (median SDs for weight-for-length, length-for-age and weight-for-age z-scores 1.01, 0.98, and 1.03, respectively), likely due to extensive training, standardization, and monitoring efforts. CONCLUSIONS: Conducting human subjects research studies in low-resource settings often presents unique logistical difficulties, and collecting high-quality data is often a challenge. Investing in comprehensive M&E is important to improve participant recruitment, retention and safety, and sample and data quality. The M&E framework from this study can be applied to other longitudinal studies.

[Health-worker barriers to syphilis screening in pregnant women in Bolivia's Los Andes network]. / Barreras del personal de salud para el tamizaje de sífilis en mujeres embarazadas de la Red Los Andes, Bolivia.

OBJECTIVE: Identify health-worker barriers that keep pregnant women who receive prenatal care from being screened for syphilis (Los Andes Health Network, Bolivia). METHODS: Semi-structured interviews were done with 46 health care providers and 249 clinical health records of pregnant women were analyzed in eight public health facilities in the Los Andes network. RESULTS: Health-worker barriers to syphilis screening in pregnant women included lack of time by personnel to raise awareness of the benefit of syphilis screening; some mentioned that syphilis tests should only be done in facilities that attend deliveries and have a laboratory; lack of communication between clinicians and laboratory personnel; and problems with provision of supplies and reagents. The clinical record review found that only 55.4% contained syphilis laboratory results and only 37.4% of perinatal clinical histories had records of laboratory results. The interviews found that providers believe that syphilis screening is done in 100% of pregnant women receiving prenatal care. CONCLUSION: Syphilis screening is not being done according to Bolivia's strategy for the elimination of congenital syphilis, and is not done on more than half of pregnant women in prenatal care with perinatal clinical history records. This is not perceived by health professionals and can become a barrier to syphilis screening in pregnant women.

Early deterioration of iron status among a cohort of Bolivian infants.

Iron deficiency (ID) and iron deficiency anemia (IDA) are major contributors to infant and maternal morbidity worldwide. There is limited longitudinal data on iron status in young infants and on methods to adjust iron biomarkers for inflammation. We aimed to quantify the prevalence of inflammation-adjusted ID, anemia, and IDA over the first year in a cohort of Bolivian infants and their mothers. Healthy mother-infant dyads were recruited from two peri-urban hospitals. Infants provided three blood draws (2, 6-8, and 12-18 months; N = 160); mothers provided two blood draws (1 and 6-8 months postpartum [plus third anemia measurement at 12-18 months]; N = 250). Blood was analyzed for hemoglobin, ferritin, soluble transferrin receptor, C-reactive protein (CRP), and alpha(1)-acid glycoprotein (AGP). Iron biomarkers were adjusted for inflammation using CRP and AGP; hemoglobin cutoffs were adjusted for altitude. Inflammation (elevated CRP or AGP) was 17% among toddlers 12-18 months of age. ID (inflammation-adjusted ferritin) increased with age (<1%, 56%, and 79% at each blood draw), as did anemia and IDA (anemia: 70%, 76%, and 81%; IDA: <1%, 46%, and 68%). Maternal ID declined from the first to second assessment (39% vs. 27%). Inflammation-adjusted ID prevalence was up to 15 percentage points higher than unadjusted estimates. The high prevalence of ID, anemia, and IDA in this cohort of Bolivian infants beginning at 6-8 months of age suggests that early interventions may be necessary in vulnerable populations.

Contraception and condom use among Bolivian female sex workers: relationship-specific associations between disease prevention and family planning behaviors.

We examined data from a clinic-based survey of 1,222 Bolivian female sex workers (FSWs) to assess whether use of nonbarrier modern contraception is associated with less consistent condom use with clients and noncommercial partners. Women who were using nonbarrier modern contraception were less likely than nonusers to consistently use condoms with noncommercial partners (AOR 0.393, 95% CI 0.203-0.759, p = .005). With clients, this inverse association did not hold. Public health professionals must consider both disease prevention and pregnancy prevention needs in this vulnerable population, and messages should be tailored to encourage dual method use with all partners.

Effects of Inflammation on Biomarkers of Vitamin A Status among a Cohort of Bolivian Infants.

Globally, vitamin A deficiency (VAD) affects nearly 200 million children with negative health consequences. VAD can be measured by a retinol-binding protein (RBP) and serum retinol concentrations. Their concentrations are not always present in a 1:1 molar ratio and are affected by inflammation. This study sought to quantify VAD and its impact on infant mortality and infectious morbidity during the first 18 months of life in a cohort of mother-infant dyads in El Alto, Bolivia, while accounting for the previously mentioned measurement issues. Healthy mother-infant dyads (n = 461) were enrolled from two hospitals and followed for 12 to 18 months. Three serum samples were collected (at one to two, six to eight, and 12 to 18 months of infant age) and analyzed for RBP, and a random 10% subsample was analyzed for retinol. Linear regression of RBP on retinol was used to generate RBP cut-offs equivalent to retinol <0.7 µmol/L. All measures of RBP and retinol were adjusted for inflammation, which was measured by a C-reactive protein and alpha (1)-acid glycoprotein serum concentrations using linear regression. Infant mortality and morbidity rates were calculated and compared by early VAD status at two months of age. Retinol and RBP were weakly affected by inflammation. This association varied with infant age. Estimated VAD (RBP < 0.7 µmol/L) decreased from 71.0% to 14.8% to 7.7% at two, six to eight, and 12 to 18 months of age. VAD was almost nonexistent in mothers. Early VAD was not significantly associated with infant mortality or morbidity rates. This study confirmed a relationship between inflammation and vitamin A biomarkers for some subsets of the population and suggested that the vitamin A status in early infancy improves with age and may not have significantly affected morbidity in this population of healthy infants.

Predictors of Inflammation in a Cohort of Bolivian Infants and Toddlers.

Inflammation has been associated with cardiovascular disease and other health outcomes in children and adults, yet few longitudinal data are available on prevalence and predictors of inflammation in infants. We aimed to identify the prevalence of inflammation in a cohort of Bolivian infants and estimate its association with acute (recent illnesses) and chronic (overweight, stunting) morbidities and potential pathogen exposure (represented by water, sanitation, and hygiene [WASH] resources). We measured plasma concentrations of two acute phase proteins (C-reactive protein [CRP], marking acute inflammation, and alpha(1)-acid-glycoprotein [AGP], marking chronic inflammation) at three time points (target 2, 6-8, and 12-18 months). Of 451 singleton infants enrolled in the parent study, 272 had the first blood draw and complete data. Anthropometry and sociodemographic and recent illness data (2-week recall of cough, diarrhea, and fever) were collected at each visit. Inflammation was defined as CRP > 5 mg/L or AGP > 1 g/L. The prevalence of inflammation increased from early infancy (3% at first blood draw) to later infancy (15-22% at later blood draws). Recent cough, recent fever, and age in months were significantly associated with relative increases in CRP (7-44%) and AGP (5-23%), whereas recent diarrhea was only significantly associated with an increase in CRP (48%). Neither anthropometry nor WASH was significantly associated with inflammation. Results confirm the role of recent acute illness in inflammation in infants, and indicate that adiposity and WASH are not as important to inflammation in this age category.

Barreras del personal de salud para el tamizaje de sífilis en mujeres embarazadas de la Red Los Andes, Bolivia / Health-worker barriers to syphilis screening in pregnant women in Bolivia’s Los Andes network

Objetivo. Identificar barreras del personal de salud por las cuales las embarazadas que asisten al control prenatal no se realizan el tamizaje de sífilis (Red de Salud Los Andes, Bolivia). Métodos. Se realizaron 46 entrevistas semiestructuradas a proveedores de salud y se analizaron los registros de 249 expedientes clínicos de embarazadas de ocho establecimientos públicos de salud de la Red Los Andes. Resultados. Entre las barreras del personal de salud para el tamizaje de sífilis en embarazadas se identificaron el tiempo insuficiente del personal para sensibilizar sobre el beneficio del tamizaje de sífilis, algunos mencionaron que las pruebas de sífilis se deberían hacer solo en centros donde atienden partos y tienen laboratorio, la poca comunicación entre el personal de la consulta médica y laboratorio, así como también problemas de abastecimiento de suministros y reactivos. En la revisión de expedientes clínicos se observó que 55,4% contaba con los resultados de laboratorio de sífilis en sus expedientes y solo 37,4% de historias clínicas perinatales contaba con registro de resultados de laboratorios. A través de las entrevistas, se pudo observar que los proveedores perciben que el tamizaje de sífilis se realiza al 100% de las embarazadas que asisten al control prenatal. Conclusión. El tamizaje para sífilis no se está realizando según lo establecido en la estrategia de país para la eliminación de la sífilis congénita, y no llega a más de la mitad de embarazadas en control prenatal con registros en las historias clínicas perinatales. Esto no es percibido por los profesionales de la salud y puede transformarse en una barrera para el tamizaje de sífilis en mujeres embarazadas.

Objective. Identify health-worker barriers that keep pregnant women who receive prenatal care from being screened for syphilis (Los Andes Health Network, Bolivia). Methods. Semi-structured interviews were done with 46 health care providers and 249 clinical health records of pregnant women were analyzed in eight public health facilities in the Los Andes network. Results. Health-worker barriers to syphilis screening in pregnant women included lack of time by personnel to raise awareness of the benefit of syphilis screening; some mentioned that syphilis tests should only be done in facilities that attend deliveries and have a laboratory; lack of communication between clinicians and laboratory personnel; and problems with provision of supplies and reagents. The clinical record review found that only 55.4% contained syphilis laboratory results and only 37.4% of perinatal clinical histories had records of laboratory results. The interviews found that providers believe that syphilis screening is done in 100% of pregnant women receiving prenatal care. Conclusion. Syphilis screening is not being done according to Bolivia’s strategy for the elimination of congenital syphilis, and is not done on more than half of pregnant women in prenatal care with perinatal clinical history records. This is not perceived by health professionals and can become a barrier to syphilis screening in pregnant women.

Barreras del personal de salud para el tamizaje de sífilis en mujeres embarazadas de la Red Los Andes, Bolivia / Health-worker barriers to syphilis screening in pregnant women in Bolivia, Los Andes network

RESUMEN Objetivo Identificar barreras del personal de salud por las cuales las embarazadas que asisten al control prenatal no se realizan el tamizaje de sífilis (Red de Salud Los Andes, Bolivia). Métodos Se realizaron 46 entrevistas semiestructuradas a proveedores de salud y se analizaron los registros de 249 expedientes clínicos de embarazadas de ocho establecimientos públicos de salud de la Red Los Andes. Resultados Entre las barreras del personal de salud para el tamizaje de sífilis en embarazadas se identificaron el tiempo insuficiente del personal para sensibilizar sobre el beneficio del tamizaje de sífilis, algunos mencionaron que las pruebas de sífilis se deberían hacer solo en centros donde atienden partos y tienen laboratorio, la poca comunicación entre el personal de la consulta médica y laboratorio, así como también problemas de abastecimiento de suministros y reactivos. En la revisión de expedientes clínicos se observó que 55,4% contaba con los resultados de laboratorio de sífilis en sus expedientes y solo 37,4% de historias clínicas perinatales contaba con registro de resultados de laboratorios. A través de las entrevistas, se pudo observar que los proveedores perciben que el tamizaje de sífilis se realiza al 100% de las embarazadas que asisten al control prenatal. Conclusión El tamizaje para sífilis no se está realizando según lo establecido en la estrategia de país para la eliminación de la sífilis congénita, y no llega a más de la mitad de embarazadas en control prenatal con registros en las historias clínicas perinatales. Esto no es percibido por los profesionales de la salud y puede transformarse en una barrera para el tamizaje de sífilis en mujeres embarazadas.

ABSTRACT Objective Identify health-worker barriers that keep pregnant women who receive prenatal care from being screened for syphilis (Los Andes Health Network, Bolivia). Methods Semi-structured interviews were done with 46 health care providers and 249 clinical health records of pregnant women were analyzed in eight public health facilities in the Los Andes network. Results Health-worker barriers to syphilis screening in pregnant women included lack of time by personnel to raise awareness of the benefit of syphilis screening; some mentioned that syphilis tests should only be done in facilities that attend deliveries and have a laboratory; lack of communication between clinicians and laboratory personnel; and problems with provision of supplies and reagents. The clinical record review found that only 55.4% contained syphilis laboratory results and only 37.4% of perinatal clinical histories had records of laboratory results. The interviews found that providers believe that syphilis screening is done in 100% of pregnant women receiving prenatal care. Conclusion Syphilis screening is not being done according to Bolivia’s strategy for the elimination of congenital syphilis, and is not done on more than half of pregnant women in prenatal care with perinatal clinical history records. This is not perceived by health professionals and can become a barrier to syphilis screening in pregnant women.

The co-occurrence of intimate partner violence and syphilis among pregnant women in Bolivia.

BACKGROUND: Intimate partner violence (IPV) and sexually transmitted infections (STI) are epidemics that disproportionately affect women. This study determined IPV prevalence and the association between IPV and positive syphilis tests among pregnant women attending antenatal clinics in three provinces in Bolivia. METHODS: We administered structured questionnaires to women after syphilis testing. The questionnaire included sociodemographic variables and four questions form the modified version of the Abuse Assessment Screen (AAS) to assess physical and sexual violence. RESULTS: Of 6002 women who completed the violence questionnaire and had a syphilis test, 20.4% (n=1227) reported physical or sexual abuse or both committed by their partner in the past year. Prevalence of positive syphilis tests was twice as high among women who reported IPV (8%) than among women who did not (4%) (p<0.01). Women's age (younger), education level (lower), occupation as homemaker, being in a consensual union, more previous pregnancies, lower economic status, and language spoken at home (Spanish and an indigenous language), as well as history of IPV in the past 12 months, were significantly associated with positive syphilis tests in bivariate analysis. History of IPV remained significantly associated with positive syphilis tests in multivariate analysis (OR 1.59, 95% CI 1.23-2.07). In addition, low education among women's partners and having at least one previous pregnancy were positively associated with IPV in multivariate analysis. CONCLUSIONS: There is a significant association between history of partner violence and a positive syphilis test among pregnant women, suggesting that syphilis can be an important negative health consequence of IPV. Bolivia's new maternal and infant health program in antenatal clinics, which includes universal syphilis screening, should also provide screening and follow-up care for IPV.

Demonstrating public health at work: a demonstration project of congenital syphilis prevention efforts in Bolivia.

OBJECTIVES: We introduced syphilis immunochromatic strip (ICS) tests into antenatal care (ANC) settings in Bolivia and evaluated feasibility, patient and provider acceptability, and introduction costs. We conducted complementary studies on related topics, strengthened quality of care, and aided the response to sensitive aspects of maternal/congenital syphilis control (e.g., partner notification). GOAL: The goal of this study was to discuss our experience working with Bolivian stakeholders to document potential public health benefits of syphilis ICS test introduction in ANC settings. STUDY DESIGN: We trained public health personnel and offered the Abbott Determine Rapid Syphilis TP test in 4 urban maternity hospitals and 37 rural clinics. RESULTS: Using the ICS test, 11,618 women were tested for syphilis; 5% had positive results and 93.2% received treatment. Women and health personnel found the test acceptable and introduction costs were not prohibitive. CONCLUSIONS: Based on these findings, by mid-2006, the Bolivian Ministry of Health will offer the ICS tests in rural ANC settings.

[Maternal and congenital syphilis in four provinces in Bolivia]. / Sífilis materna y congénita en cuatro provincias de Bolivia.

OBJECTIVE: Assess frequencies of maternal and congenital syphilis, mother-child transmission and variables associated with syphilis in six urban hospitals in Bolivia. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A cross-sectional study was performed between May and September 2004. We administered the Abbot Determine-TP rapid test and quantitative RPR to postpartum women without prior RPR. Sociodemographic variables and prior prenatal care visits were studied. Newborns of syphilis positive mothers were studied with Western Blot IgM p47 and ELISA IgM. Serum samples were analyzed at the Central Reference Laboratory (INLASA). Statistical analysis included bivariate and multivariate analyses to establish association with positive diagnosis of T. pallidum. RESULTS: Syphilis prevalence among 1 594 postpartum women was 7.2%. Mother to child transmission was 15.7%. Congenital syphilis prevalence by serology was 1.1% and 94% of these newborns displayed no symptoms. Despite 70.5% prenatal care coverage in Bolivia some women still go directly to a facility to give birth without prior routine tests for syphilis. Low education levels in both parents (< 8 years) and failure to attend prenatal care were strong predictors of congenital syphilis. CONCLUSIONS: Rapid syphilis tests constitute an important tool to strengthen early diagnosis of syphilis during pregnancy. Preventing congenital and maternal syphilis in Bolivia remains a public health priority.

Maternal syphilis and intimate partner violence in Bolivia: a gender-based analysis of implications for partner notification and universal screening.

OBJECTIVES: Use a gender perspective to analyze a partner notification study conducted in antenatal clinics in Bolivia to assess the association between intimate partner violence (IPV) and partner notification. GOAL: Guide the implementation of a safe, feasible, and culturally appropriate partner notification strategy in Bolivia in order to reduce the potential of IPV. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a cross-sectional survey with women (n = 209) and their notified partners (n = 137) and structured interviews with a subsample of participants. RESULTS: Nearly 40% of women reported IPV in the past year and 28% mentioned fear of violence as a barrier to notifying their partners. Overall, 65% of women reported that they had notified their partners about their positive syphilis test results. Women who did not perceive violence as a barrier had greater odds of notifying their partner of their syphilis status (OR = 1.82; CI [0.93-3.60]; P <0.08). Women who could not protect themselves against partners' syphilis had a lower odds of notifying their partner (OR = 0.06; CI [0.049-0.656]; P <0.0001). Women who notified their partners said it was a favorable experience. Most men said they responded well to their partner's disclosure but could understand other men acting violently, especially when infidelity was involved. CONCLUSIONS: The majority of women who participated were able to notify male partners of their positive syphilis diagnosis but also reported high levels of domestic violence. The data suggest that public health practitioners should concomitantly screen for IPV and syphilis during pregnancy and assist women in abusive relationships on how to communicate sensitive disclosure information to partners.

Analysis of the operational costs of using rapid syphilis tests for the detection of maternal syphilis in Bolivia and Mozambique.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to compare the costs of antenatal syphilis screening with the rapid plasma reagin (RPR) test and the immunochromatographic strip (ICS) test in low-resource settings. GOAL: The goal of this study was to assess the costs of introducing rapid syphilis tests to reduce maternal and congenital syphilis. STUDY DESIGN: Cost data were collected from participating study hospitals and antenatal clinics during 4 field visits to the 2 countries in 2003 and 2004. Health utilization outcome data on the number of women screened and treated routinely during the demonstration projects were used with unit cost data to estimate the incremental costs and average cost per woman screened and treated for maternal syphilis. RESULTS: In Mozambique, the average cost per woman screened was U.S. $0.91 and U.S. $1.05 for the RPR and ICS tests, respectively. In Bolivia, the average cost of screening was U.S. $1.48 and U.S. $1.91 using the RPR and ICS test, respectively. In health centers without laboratories, the cost per woman screened using the ICS test ranged from U.S. $1.02 in Mozambique to U.S. $2.84 in Bolivia. CONCLUSIONS: It is feasible to introduce rapid syphilis testing in settings without laboratory services at a small incremental cost per woman screened. In settings with laboratories, the cost of ICS is similar to that of RPR.

Sífilis materna y congénita en cuatro provincias de Bolivia / Maternal and congenital syphilis in four provinces in Bolivia

OBJETIVO: Calcular las frecuencias de sífilis materna y congénita, transmisión del agente etiológico de la madre al recién nacido, y variables asociadas con la enfermedad, en seis hospitales públicos en Bolivia. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se realizó un estudio transversal de mayo a septiembre de 2004. Se administró la prueba rápida para sífilis Determine-TP y RPR cuantitativo a mujeres postparto sin RPR previo. Se incluyeron antecedentes demográficos y de atención prenatal de embarazos previos. A los recién nacidos de madres con sífilis se les practicó Western Blot IgM p47 y ELISA IgM. Las pruebas serológicas se procesaron en el Laboratorio Nacional de Referencia (INLASA). Se realizó un análisis estadístico bivariado y multivariado para establecer asociaciones con el diagnóstico positivo a T. pallidum. RESULTADOS: La prevalencia de sífilis entre 1 594 mujeres postparto fue de 7.2 por ciento, con una proporción de transmisión de infección de madres a recién nacidos de 15.7 por ciento. La prevalencia de sífilis congénita por serología fue de 1.1 por ciento; 94 por ciento de estos neonatos no presentaron sintomatología. A pesar de una cobertura de control prenatal de 70.5 por ciento en Bolivia, aún existen mujeres que acuden directamente al parto institucional sin contar con tamizaje previo para sífilis con pruebas de rutina. El bajo nivel de instrucción formal (< 8 años) en ambos padres y no asistir a control prenatal se asociaron con sífilis congénita. CONCLUSIONES: Es importante fortalecer las estrategias de diagnóstico temprano de sífilis durante el embarazo, utilizando pruebas rápidas para contribuir a la prevención de la sífilis congénita y materna.

OBJECTIVE: Assess frequencies of maternal and congenital syphilis, mother-child transmission and variables associated with syphilis in six urban hospitals in Bolivia. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A cross-sectional study was performed between May and September 2004. We administered the Abbot Determine-TP rapid test and quantitative RPR to postpartum women without prior RPR. Sociodemographic variables and prior prenatal care visits were studied. Newborns of syphilis positive mothers were studied with Western Blot IgM p47 and ELISA IgM. Serum samples were analyzed at the Central Reference Laboratory (INLASA). Statistical analysis included bivariate and multivariate analyses to establish association with positive diagnosis of T. pallidum. RESULTS: Syphilis prevalence among 1 594 postpartum women was 7.2 percent. Mother to child transmission was 15.7 percent. Congenital syphilis prevalence by serology was 1.1 percent and 94 percent of these newborns displayed no symptoms. Despite 70.5 percent prenatal care coverage in Bolivia some women still go directly to a facility to give birth without prior routine tests for syphilis. Low education levels in both parents (< 8 years) and failure to attend prenatal care were strong predictors of congenital syphilis. CONCLUSIONS: Rapid syphilis tests constitute an important tool to strengthen early diagnosis of syphilis during pregnancy. Preventing congenital and maternal syphilis in Bolivia remains a public health priority.

Caracteristicas de niños con diarrea persistente en la consulta ambulatoria del Hospital del Niño Dr. Ovidio Aliaga Uría / Characteristic of children's with persistent diarhea in ambulatory consult in the Children Hospital Ovidio Alaiga Uria

La diarrea continúa como una de la causas principales de enfermedad y muerte de niños menores de cinco años. Entre el 3 al 20 por ciento de todos los episodios de diarrea se prolongan por a 14 días a más, con marcado deterioro del estado nutricional y tasas de letalidad elevada. Se han descrito diferentes factores asociados a esta patologia muchos de ellos relacionados con el tipo de menejo del proeceso agudo. Con el objeto de conocer mejor la diarrea persistente, en el hospital del Niño "Dr. Ovidio Aliaga Uría", se estudiaron las características de niños de 0 a 36 meses de edad que acudieron a consulta externa con diarea, todos ellos fueron seguidos por un máximo de 21 dias o hasta la desaparición de la diarrea. En cada uno se realizó historia clinica exhaustiva, examen físico, determinación de estado de nutrición, examen de deposiciones para la búsqueda de bacterias patólogenas, estudio de parásitos, virus, determinación de sangre oculta en heces, citología de moco fecal y pruebas de intolerancia a la lactosa. Entre los rsultados señalan que el 17.9 por ciento cursaron con diarrea de duración mayor a 14 días, la edad promedio de estos niños fue de 15.10 messes. La comparación entre el grupo diarrea persistente versus aguda mostró que los primeros consultaron a personal de salud, recibieron más medicamentos y alimentos nuevos por este episodio, tuvieron menos compromiso del estado general y menos signos o sintomas de deshidratación. Entre los factores que aparentemente tienen más riesgo de incrementar la duración de la diarrea son consulta pediátrica después de ocho días de enfermedad y ingesta de mediacamentos durante este tiempo.