Examining Rater Effects on the Classroom Assessment Scoring System.

The Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS; Pianta et al., 2008) is a popular measure of teacher-child interactions. Despite its prominence, CLASS scores have fairly weak relations with various child outcomes (e.g., Zaslow et al., 2010). One potential reason for these findings could be systematic differences in observer severity. As such, the purpose of this study was to explore the scope and impact of rater effects on CLASS scores with a sample of 77 teachers who were rated by 13 observers. Results indicated significant rater effects across all three CLASS domains. Adjusting for these effects, however, did not improve relations between CLASS scores and child outcomes. Implications for the CLASS and related assessments are discussed.

Variations in Classroom Language Environments of Preschool Children Who Are Low Income and Linguistically Diverse.

RESEARCH FINDINGS: This study aimed to (a) provide an in-depth description of the frequency and type of language interactions that children who are low-income and/or dual language learners (DLL) experience in their classrooms and (b) examine whether differenceFor instance, in a randomized control trial with 461 first grade s exist in children's language experiences based on children's DLL status and level of English proficiency. Using the Language Interaction Snapshot, we observed four focal children in each of 72 early childhood classrooms: one monolingual English-speaking child (i.e., non-DLL), one Spanish-dominant DLL child, and two bilingual Spanish-English DLL children. Findings indicate that both lead and assistant teachers predominantly spoke in English and implemented few evidence-based language practices. Children spoke more often to peers than to teachers. Little variation was noted in the quality of the language environment for children based on their DLL status or language proficiency. PRACTICE: Results suggest clear directions for professional development (PD). PD must include both lead and assistant teachers and should focus on evidence-based language strategies for facilitating children's language development, including how to effectively teach DLLs. Teachers may also benefit from PD that supports use of small group activity and peer strategies.

Warmth and Demand: The Relation Between Students' Perceptions of the Classroom Environment and Achievement Growth.

Theory suggests that African American students benefit from warm and demanding teachers. This study examines the relation between students' perceptions of 634 teachers' warm demander characteristics and achievement growth in fourth and fifth grades (Mstudent age  = 9-11.5 years). Analyses explored whether relations were moderated by the proportion of African American students in the classroom or the ethnic match or mismatch between African American students and their teachers. Results indicated that students' perceptions of teachers' demand (challenge and control) related to student achievement growth. Findings showed a stronger relation between challenge and academic growth in classrooms with more African American students, but no significant findings were identified for ethnic match or mismatch.

Relations Among the Home Language and Literacy Environment and Children's Language Abilities: A Study of Head Start Dual Language Learners and Their Mothers.

RESEARCH FINDINGS: This study explored the relations between Spanish-English dual language learner (DLL) children's home language and literacy experiences and their expressive vocabulary and oral comprehension abilities in Spanish and in English. Data from Spanish-English mothers of 93 preschool-age Head Start children who resided in central Pennsylvania were analyzed. Children completed the Picture Vocabulary and Oral Comprehension subtests of the Batería III Woodcock-Muñoz and the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement. Results revealed that the language spoken by mothers and children and the frequency of mother-child reading at home influenced children's Spanish language abilities. In addition, the frequency with which children told a story was positively related to children's performance on English oral language measures. PRACTICE OR POLICY: The findings suggest that language and literacy experiences at home have a differential impact on DLLs' language abilities in their 2 languages. Specific components of the home environment that benefit and support DLL children's language abilities are discussed.

Depression, Control, and Climate: An Examination of Factors Impacting Teaching Quality in Preschool Classrooms.

RESEARCH FINDINGS: This study investigated the relationship of preschool teachers' self-reported depressive symptomatology, perception of classroom control, and perception of school climate to classroom quality as measured by the Classroom Assessment Scoring System Pre-K. The sample consisted of 59 urban preschool classrooms serving low-income and linguistically diverse students in the northeastern and southeastern United States. Results of hierarchical linear modeling revealed that teachers' individual reports of depressive symptomatology were significantly and negatively predictive of the observed quality of their instructional support and classroom organization. PRACTICE OR POLICY: The findings of this study have implications for increasing access to mental health supports for teachers in an effort to minimize depressive symptoms and potentially improve classroom quality.

The Language and Literacy Development of Young Dual Language Learners: A Critical Review.

The number of children living in the United States who are learning two languages is increasing greatly. However, relatively little research has been conducted on the language and literacy development of dual language learners (DLLs), particularly during the early childhood years. To summarize the extant literature and guide future research, a critical analysis of the literature was conducted. A search of major databases for studies on young typically developing DLLs between 2000-2011 yielded 182 peer-reviewed articles. Findings about DLL children's developmental trajectories in the various areas of language and literacy are presented. Much of these findings should be considered preliminary, because there were few areas where multiple studies were conducted. Conclusions were reached when sufficient evidence existed in a particular area. First, the research shows that DLLs have two separate language systems early in life. Second, differences in some areas of language development, such as vocabulary, appear to exist among DLLs depending on when they were first exposed to their second language. Third, DLLs' language and literacy development may differ from that of monolinguals, although DLLs appear to catch up over time. Fourth, little is known about factors that influence DLLs' development, although the amount of language exposure to and usage of DLLs' two languages appears to play key roles. Methodological issues are addressed, and directions for future research are discussed.

The roles of adaptability and school climate in first-year teachers' developing perceptions of themselves, their classroom relationships, and the career.

The teaching career, and especially the transition from pre-service to in-service teaching, is uniquely characterized by change. Adaptability is an internal characteristic that has been shown to benefit teachers and may be especially relevant as they begin developing initial perceptions of themselves as educators, of their relationships with students, and of the teaching career at large. Importantly though, it is likely that the impacts of adaptability depend in part on the broader context. One such contextual factor that is highly relevant to teachers is their school's climate. The present study explored direct and indirect (moderated) relations among first-year teachers' (N = 133) adaptability and perceived school climate and their teaching self-efficacy, perceptions of the classroom relational climate, and career optimism. Path analysis revealed positive main effects of adaptability on self-efficacy and perceptions of classroom relational climate, as well as positive main effects of school climate on self-efficacy and career optimism. In addition, an interaction effect was detected whereby relations among adaptability and self-efficacy were strongest among participants who reported high and average levels of school climate. Results can inform future research on teacher adaptability and can also be used to inform interventions and supports provided to new teachers by school psychologists and other school personnel.

Head start classroom demands and resources: Identifying associations with teacher burnout.

Theoretical models of job stress suggest that teachers' experience with burnout occurs, in part, because of an imbalance between job demands and the resources available to meet those demands. Using a diverse sample of 230 Head Start educators, the present study explored how school-based demands (i.e., class size, behavioral challenges) and resources (i.e., school social supports) contributed to teachers' self-reported burnout. Findings revealed that greater social support, specifically leads teachers' relationship with their assistant teacher (TA), was associated with lower ratings of burnout. There was also a significant interaction between classroom behavior problems and TA relationship quality, such that relationship quality reduced burnout in classrooms with low and average levels of behavior problems, but not in classrooms with high levels of behavior problems. Implications of these findings for preschool teacher well-being are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Teachers survive together: Teacher collegial relationships and well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic.

COVID-19 disrupted the ecology of schools and negatively influenced teacher mental health and retention. This mixed-methods study investigates the relationship between teacher well-being and teacher collegial relationships after a year enduring COVID-19 pandemic disruptions. By analyzing data collected through surveys (N = 185) and interviews (N = 27) with U.S. teachers in Spring-Summer 2021, we explore how teacher collegial relationships influenced teacher well-being and unpack how teachers collaborated and supported each other during the pandemic. We find that positive teacher-teacher and teacher-administrator relationships were significantly associated with greater teacher well-being and that teacher-teacher relationships deepened as colleagues engaged in innovative and supportive pedagogical problem solving and provided emotional support, a "silver lining" in education that arose during the pandemic. By sharing and affirming stories of how teachers organized, collaborated, engaged in professional sensemaking, and supported each other's emotional health and resilience, educational leaders can help reaffirm this narrative of teacher collective strength. Moving forward, schools should also create more opportunities for deep teacher collaboration, taking advantage of this opportunity to intentionally build on teachers' growing skills, trust, and capacity to address broad organizational and curricular innovation together. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Social-Emotional Learning for Whom? Implications of a Universal SEL Program and Teacher Well-being for Teachers' Interactions with Students.

Social-emotional learning interventions are intended to improve classroom dynamics and have the potential to enhance the well-being of students and their teachers. Using data drawn from an effectiveness trial of the Social Skills Improvement System SEL Edition Classwide Intervention Program (SSIS SEL CIP; Elliott and Gresham in SSIS SEL Edition Classwide Intervention Program manual, Pearson, Inc., 2017), the present quantitative study explored associations between classroom implementation of a universal SEL program, teachers' emotional well-being, and teacher-student interactions. The results from a sample of 80 first- and second-grade teachers located in three socioeconomically and geographically diverse regions of the USA indicated that implementation of the SSIS SEL CIP curriculum was positively associated with teachers' classroom organization skills at the end of the year. Findings also revealed an interaction between treatment condition and teacher emotional well-being such that control teachers with lower well-being also had lower quality classroom organization but this association did not exist for teachers in the intervention condition. Findings suggest that implementation of the SSIS SEL CIP may help to preserve positive teacher-student interactions even when teachers are reporting lower levels of emotional well-being.

English learners' achievement in mathematics and science: Examining the role of self-efficacy.

The goals of the current study were twofold. The first goal was to describe levels of mathematics and science self-efficacy and achievement among a sample of students with varying levels of English language proficiency. The second goal was to examine the extent to which students' self-efficacy explains the relation between their English proficiency level and mathematics and science achievement. The sample consisted of 332 fifth graders (mean age = 10.46 years, SD = 0.38) and their 63 teachers in 20 schools. The student sample was linguistically diverse with parents reporting 22 different home languages. Based on district classification procedures, each student was coded into one of three English language proficiency level categories: English proficient-speaking students (English proficient), English Learner (EL) students who are reaching proficiency, yet are still being monitored (reaching proficiency), and EL students who are receiving English for Speakers of Other Languages services (ESOL; limited English proficient). Regression analyses indicated that students identified as limited English proficient consistently demonstrated lower achievement and self-efficacy across the content areas of mathematics and science as compared to their peers who were English proficient and reaching proficiency. In addition, students' self-efficacy partially explained the relation between limited English proficiency level and achievement for science, but not for mathematics. Results indicate that educators should consider variability in students' English proficiency levels as they select supports to promote both science achievement and self-efficacy. Findings also suggest promise for practices and programs that foster self-efficacy in addition to language and content skills.

Gains in teacher-child interaction quality and children's school readiness skills: Does it matter where teachers start?

Teachers' initial level of interactional quality at the beginning of a school year (baseline) was examined as a potential moderating factor in the relation between change in interactional quality and change in children's school readiness skills throughout an academic year. Participants were 269 preschool teachers and 1179 children from low-income backgrounds. Teacher-child interactions and children's school readiness skills were measured in the fall and spring of the preschool year. Overall, improvements in the quality of teacher-child interactions across the year were not significantly related to children's skill development. Three important findings emerged; two main effects and one interaction effect. Gains in teachers' instructional support across the year were related to children's literacy and inhibitory control development. Additionally, the relation between gains in teachers' emotional support and gains in children's inhibitory control was moderated by teachers' initial level of emotional support at the beginning of the year. These findings provide limited evidence for the need to consider teachers' initial level of quality and how much they change across the year in understanding the relation between quality of teacher-child interactions and children's skill development.

Converging on quality: Examining multiple measures of teaching effectiveness.

The present study explores the convergent and predictive validity for several widely used measures of teaching quality from the Measures of Effective Teaching Project (Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, 2009-2011). Specifically, the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS; Pianta, Hamre, & Mintz, 2012), the Framework for Teaching (FFT; Danielson Group, 2013), and the Tripod Student Perceptions Scale (Tripod; Ferguson, 2008) were examined. Correlations among measures were assessed by developmental level and content area (elementary mathematics N = 70; elementary English language arts N = 101; middle school mathematics N = 291, middle school English language arts N = 280). Both average scores and score variability (i.e., coefficient of variation) for the CLASS, FFT, and Tripod were used to predict value-added models (VAM), a high-stakes measure of students' academic growth. For elementary mathematics and ELA, findings indicated the CLASS and FFT exhibited moderate convergent validity while divergent validity was found between the Tripod and the CLASS and FFT. Across content areas in middle school grades, the CLASS, FFT, and Tripod exhibited moderate to high-moderate convergent validity. Average student and observer scores were positively related to VAM scores, whereas variability in scores demonstrated negative relations to VAM scores. Implications of findings for teacher evaluation and professional development are discussed.

Social validity of the Social Skills Improvement System-Classwide Intervention Program (SSIS-CIP) in the primary grades.

The purpose of this study was to examine the social validity of the Social Skills Improvement System-Classwide Intervention Program (SSIS-CIP) for teachers in the primary grades. Participants included 45 first and second grade teachers who completed a 16-item social validity questionnaire during each year of the SSIS-CIP efficacy trial. Findings indicated that teachers generally perceived the SSIS-CIP as a socially valid and feasible intervention for primary grades; however, teachers' ratings regarding ease of implementation and relevance and sequence demonstrated differences across grade levels in the second year of implementation. (PsycINFO Database Record

Structural validity of CLASS K-3 in primary grades: Testing alternative models.

This study examined the internal structure of the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS; K-3 version). The original CLASS K-3 model (Pianta, La Paro, & Hamre, 2008) and 5 alternative models were tested using confirmatory factor analysis with a sample of first- and second-grade classrooms (N = 141). Findings indicated that a slightly modified version of the original CLASS K-3 3-factor model best fit the current data. Although stable findings emerged across the current and previous studies, particularly in relation to the presence of 3 latent domains, there is also some variability across structures at different grade levels with regard to the bifactor and 3-factor models. (PsycINFO Database Record

Preschool Teachers' Language and Literacy Practices with Dual Language Learners.

The purposes of this study were to (a) examine the degree to which teachers used linguistically responsive practices to support the language and literacy development of Spanish-speaking Dual Language Learners (DLL) and (b) to investigate the associations between these practices and select teacher-level factors. The sample consisted of 72 preschool teachers. Observational data were collected on practices. Teachers self-reported on language and culture beliefs, Spanish speaking ability, and classroom composition. Results indicated that teachers, including those who spoke Spanish, used few linguistically responsive practices to support preschool DLLs. Only Spanish-speaking ability was related to practices. Implications for targeted professional development are discussed.

Analysis of Bilingual Children's Performance on the English and Spanish Versions of the Woodcock-Muñoz Language Survey-R (WMLS-R).

The purpose of this study was to investigate the way in which items on the Woodcock-Muñoz Language Survey Revised (WMLS-R) Spanish and English versions function for bilingual children from different ethnic subgroups who speak different dialects of Spanish. Using data from a sample of 324 bilingual Hispanic families and their children living on the United States mainland, differential item functioning (DIF) was conducted to determine if test items in English and Spanish functioned differently for Mexican, Cuban, and Puerto Rican bilingual children. Data on child and parent language characteristics and children's scores on Picture Vocabulary and Story Recall subtests in English and Spanish were collected. DIF was not detected for items on the Spanish subtests. Results revealed that some items on English subtests displayed statistically and practically significant DIF. The findings indicate that there are differences in the difficulty level of WMLS-R English-form test items depending on the examinees' ethnic subgroup membership. This outcome suggests that test developers need to be mindful of potential differences in performance based on ethnic subgroup and dialect when developing standardized language assessments that may be administered to bilingual students.