Clonally expanded B cells in multiple sclerosis bind EBV EBNA1 and GlialCAM.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a heterogenous autoimmune disease in which autoreactive lymphocytes attack the myelin sheath of the central nervous system. B lymphocytes in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of patients with MS contribute to inflammation and secrete oligoclonal immunoglobulins1,2. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection has been epidemiologically linked to MS, but its pathological role remains unclear3. Here we demonstrate high-affinity molecular mimicry between the EBV transcription factor EBV nuclear antigen 1 (EBNA1) and the central nervous system protein glial cell adhesion molecule (GlialCAM) and provide structural and in vivo functional evidence for its relevance. A cross-reactive CSF-derived antibody was initially identified by single-cell sequencing of the paired-chain B cell repertoire of MS blood and CSF, followed by protein microarray-based testing of recombinantly expressed CSF-derived antibodies against MS-associated viruses. Sequence analysis, affinity measurements and the crystal structure of the EBNA1-peptide epitope in complex with the autoreactive Fab fragment enabled tracking of the development of the naive EBNA1-restricted antibody to a mature EBNA1-GlialCAM cross-reactive antibody. Molecular mimicry is facilitated by a post-translational modification of GlialCAM. EBNA1 immunization exacerbates disease in a mouse model of MS, and anti-EBNA1 and anti-GlialCAM antibodies are prevalent in patients with MS. Our results provide a mechanistic link for the association between MS and EBV and could guide the development of new MS therapies.

Detection of High-Risk Paraneoplastic Antibodies against TRIM9 and TRIM67 Proteins.

OBJECTIVE: Co-occurring anti-tripartite motif-containing protein 9 and 67 autoantibodies (TRIM9/67-IgG) have been reported in only a very few cases of paraneoplastic cerebellar syndrome. The value of these biomarkers and the most sensitive methods of TRIM9/67-IgG detection are not known. METHODS: We performed a retrospective, multicenter study to evaluate the cerebrospinal fluid and serum of candidate TRIM9/67-IgG cases by tissue-based immunofluorescence, peptide phage display immunoprecipitation sequencing, overexpression cell-based assay (CBA), and immunoblot. Cases in which TRIM9/67-IgG was detected by at least 2 assays were considered TRIM9/67-IgG positive. RESULTS: Among these cases (n = 13), CBA was the most sensitive (100%) and revealed that all cases had TRIM9 and TRIM67 autoantibodies. Of TRIM9/67-IgG cases with available clinical history, a subacute cerebellar syndrome was the most common presentation (n = 7/10), followed by encephalitis (n = 3/10). Of these 10 patients, 70% had comorbid cancer (7/10), 85% of whom (n = 6/7) had confirmed metastatic disease. All evaluable cancer biopsies expressed TRIM9 protein (n = 5/5), whose expression was elevated in the cancerous regions of the tissue in 4 of 5 cases. INTERPRETATION: TRIM9/67-IgG is a rare but likely high-risk paraneoplastic biomarker for which CBA appears to be the most sensitive diagnostic assay. ANN NEUROL 2023;94:1086-1101.

A pathogenic and clonally expanded B cell transcriptome in active multiple sclerosis.

Central nervous system B cells have several potential roles in multiple sclerosis (MS): secretors of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines, presenters of autoantigens to T cells, producers of pathogenic antibodies, and reservoirs for viruses that trigger demyelination. To interrogate these roles, single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-Seq) was performed on paired cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blood from subjects with relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS; n = 12), other neurologic diseases (ONDs; n = 1), and healthy controls (HCs; n = 3). Single-cell immunoglobulin sequencing (scIg-Seq) was performed on a subset of these subjects and additional RRMS (n = 4), clinically isolated syndrome (n = 2), and OND (n = 2) subjects. Further, paired CSF and blood B cell subsets (RRMS; n = 7) were isolated using fluorescence activated cell sorting for bulk RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq). Independent analyses across technologies demonstrated that nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and cholesterol biosynthesis pathways were activated, and specific cytokine and chemokine receptors were up-regulated in CSF memory B cells. Further, SMAD/TGF-ß1 signaling was down-regulated in CSF plasmablasts/plasma cells. Clonally expanded, somatically hypermutated IgM+ and IgG1+ CSF B cells were associated with inflammation, blood-brain barrier breakdown, and intrathecal Ig synthesis. While we identified memory B cells and plasmablast/plasma cells with highly similar Ig heavy-chain sequences across MS subjects, similarities were also identified with ONDs and HCs. No viral transcripts, including from Epstein-Barr virus, were detected. Our findings support the hypothesis that in MS, CSF B cells are driven to an inflammatory and clonally expanded memory and plasmablast/plasma cell phenotype.

A novel cause of chronic viral meningoencephalitis: Cache Valley virus.

OBJECTIVE: Immunodeficient patients are particularly vulnerable to neuroinvasive infections that can be challenging to diagnose. Metagenomic next generation sequencing can identify unusual or novel microbes and is therefore well suited for investigating the etiology of chronic meningoencephalitis in immunodeficient patients. METHODS: We present the case of a 34-year-old man with X-linked agammaglobulinemia from Australia suffering from 3 years of meningoencephalitis that defied an etiologic diagnosis despite extensive conventional testing, including a brain biopsy. Metagenomic next generation sequencing of his cerebrospinal fluid and brain biopsy tissue was performed to identify a causative pathogen. RESULTS: Sequences aligning to multiple Cache Valley virus genes were identified via metagenomic next generation sequencing. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemistry subsequently confirmed the presence of Cache Valley virus in the brain biopsy tissue. INTERPRETATION: Cache Valley virus, a mosquito-borne orthobunyavirus, has only been identified in 3 immunocompetent North American patients with acute neuroinvasive disease. The reported severity ranges from a self-limiting meningitis to a rapidly fatal meningoencephalitis with multiorgan failure. The virus has never been known to cause a chronic systemic or neurologic infection in humans. Cache Valley virus has also never previously been detected on the Australian continent. Our research subject traveled to North and South Carolina and Michigan in the weeks prior to the onset of his illness. This report demonstrates that metagenomic next generation sequencing allows for unbiased pathogen identification, the early detection of emerging viruses as they spread to new locales, and the discovery of novel disease phenotypes. Ann Neurol 2017;82:105-114.

IFN-ß treatment requires B cells for efficacy in neuroautoimmunity.

IFN-ß remains the most widely prescribed treatment for relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis. Despite widespread use of IFN-ß, the therapeutic mechanism is still partially understood. Particularly, the clinical relevance of increased B cell activity during IFN-ß treatment is unclear. In this article, we show that IFN-ß pushes some B cells into a transitional, regulatory population that is a critical mechanism for therapy. IFN-ß treatment increases the absolute number of regulatory CD19(+)CD24(++)CD38(++) transitional B cells in peripheral blood relative to treatment-naive and Copaxone-treated patients. In addition, we found that transitional B cells from both healthy controls and IFN-ß-treated MS patients are potent producers of IL-10, and that the capability of IFN-ß to induce IL-10 is amplified when B cells are stimulated. Similar changes are seen in mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. IFN-ß treatment increases transitional and regulatory B cell populations, as well as IL-10 secretion in the spleen. Furthermore, we found that IFN-ß increases autoantibody production, implicating humoral immune activation in B cell regulatory responses. Finally, we demonstrate that IFN-ß therapy requires immune-regulatory B cells by showing that B cell-deficient mice do not benefit clinically or histopathologically from IFN-ß treatment. These results have significant implications for the diagnosis and treatment of relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis.

A tale of two approaches: how metagenomics and proteomics are shaping the future of encephalitis diagnostics.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: We highlight how metagenomics and proteomics-based approaches are being applied to the problem of diagnosis in idiopathic encephalitis. RECENT FINDINGS: Low cost, high-throughput next-generation sequencing platforms have enabled unbiased sequencing of biological samples. Rapid sequence-based computational algorithms then determine the source of all the nonhost (e.g., pathogen-derived) nucleic acids in a sample. This approach recently identified a case of neuroleptospirosis, resulting in a patient's dramatic clinical improvement with intravenous penicillin. Metagenomics also enabled the discovery of a neuroinvasive astrovirus in several patients. With regard to autoimmune encephalitis, advances in high throughput and efficient phage display of human peptides resulted in the discovery of autoantibodies against tripartite motif family members in a patient with paraneoplastic encephalitis. A complementary assay using ribosomes to display full-length human proteins identified additional autoantibody targets. SUMMARY: Metagenomics and proteomics represent promising avenues of research to improve upon the diagnostic yield of current assays for infectious and autoimmune encephalitis, respectively.

Dual ankyrinG and subpial autoantibodies in a man with well-controlled HIV infection with steroid-responsive meningoencephalitis: A case report.

Neuroinvasive infection is the most common cause of meningoencephalitis in people living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), but autoimmune etiologies have been reported. We present the case of a 51-year-old man living with HIV infection with steroid-responsive meningoencephalitis whose comprehensive pathogen testing was non-diagnostic. Subsequent tissue-based immunofluorescence with acute-phase cerebrospinal fluid revealed anti-neural antibodies localizing to the axon initial segment (AIS), the node of Ranvier (NoR), and the subpial space. Phage display immunoprecipitation sequencing identified ankyrinG (AnkG) as the leading candidate autoantigen. A synthetic blocking peptide encoding the PhIP-Seq-identified AnkG epitope neutralized CSF IgG binding to the AIS and NoR, thereby confirming a monoepitopic AnkG antibody response. However, subpial immunostaining persisted, indicating the presence of additional autoantibodies. Review of archival tissue-based staining identified candidate AnkG autoantibodies in a 60-year-old woman with metastatic ovarian cancer and seizures that were subsequently validated by cell-based assay. AnkG antibodies were not detected by tissue-based assay and/or PhIP-Seq in control CSF (N = 39), HIV CSF (N = 79), or other suspected and confirmed neuroinflammatory CSF cases (N = 1,236). Therefore, AnkG autoantibodies in CSF are rare but extend the catalog of AIS and NoR autoantibodies associated with neurological autoimmunity.

Distinctive waves of innate immune response in the retina in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis.

Neurodegeneration mediates neurological disability in inflammatory demyelinating diseases of the CNS. The role of innate immune cells in mediating this damage has remained controversial with evidence for destructive and protective effects. This has complicated efforts to develop treatment. The time sequence and dynamic evolution of the opposing functions are especially unclear. Given limits of in vivo monitoring in human diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS), animal models are warranted to investigate the association and timing of innate immune activation with neurodegeneration. Using noninvasive in vivo retinal imaging of experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE) in CX3CR1GFP/+-knock-in mice followed by transcriptional profiling, we are able to show 2 distinct waves separated by a marked reduction in the number of innate immune cells and change in cell morphology. The first wave is characterized by an inflammatory phagocytic phenotype preceding the onset of EAE, whereas the second wave is characterized by a regulatory, antiinflammatory phenotype during the chronic stage. Additionally, the magnitude of the first wave is associated with neuronal loss. Two transcripts identified - growth arrest-specific protein 6 (GAS6) and suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3) - might be promising targets for enhancing protective effects of microglia in the chronic phase after initial injury.

Minimal breast milk transfer of rituximab, a monoclonal antibody used in neurological conditions.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the transfer of rituximab, an anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody widely used for neurologic conditions, into mature breast milk. METHODS: Breast milk samples were collected from 9 women with MS who received rituximab 500 or 1,000 mg intravenous once or twice while breastfeeding from November 2017 to April 2019. Serial breast milk samples were collected before infusion and at 8 hours, 24 hours, 7 days, and 18-21 days after rituximab infusion in 4 patients. Five additional patients provided 1-2 samples at various times after rituximab infusion. RESULTS: The median average rituximab concentration in mature breast milk was low at 0.063 µg/mL (range 0.046-0.097) in the 4 patients with serial breast milk collection, with an estimated median absolute infant dose of 0.0094 mg/kg/d and a relative infant dose (RID) of 0.08% (range 0.06%-0.10%). Most patients had a maximum concentration at 1-7 days after infusion. The maximum concentration occurred in a woman with a single breast milk sample and was 0.29 µg/mL at 11 days postinfusion, which corresponds with an estimated RID of 0.33%. Rituximab concentration in milk was virtually undetectable by 90 days postinfusion. CONCLUSIONS: We determined minimal transfer of rituximab into mature breast milk. The RID for rituximab was less than 0.4% and well below theoretically acceptable levels of less than 10%. Low oral bioavailability would probably also limit the absorption of rituximab by the newborn. In women with serious autoimmune neurologic conditions, monoclonal antibody therapy may afford an acceptable benefit to risk ratio, supporting both maternal treatment and breastfeeding.

Genomic and serologic characterization of enterovirus A71 brainstem encephalitis.

OBJECTIVE: In 2016, Catalonia experienced a pediatric brainstem encephalitis outbreak caused by enterovirus A71 (EV-A71). Conventional testing identified EV in the periphery but rarely in CSF. Metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS) and CSF pan-viral serology (VirScan) were deployed to enhance viral detection and characterization. METHODS: RNA was extracted from the CSF (n = 20), plasma (n = 9), stool (n = 15), and nasopharyngeal samples (n = 16) from 10 children with brainstem encephalitis and 10 children with meningitis or encephalitis. Pathogens were identified using mNGS. Available CSF from cases (n = 12) and pediatric other neurologic disease controls (n = 54) were analyzed with VirScan with a subset (n = 9 and n = 50) validated by ELISA. RESULTS: mNGS detected EV in all samples positive by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) (n = 25). In qRT-PCR-negative samples (n = 35), mNGS found virus in 23% (n = 8, 3 CSF samples). Overall, mNGS enhanced EV detection from 42% (25/60) to 57% (33/60) (p-value = 0.013). VirScan and ELISA increased detection to 92% (11/12) compared with 46% (4/12) for CSF mNGS and qRT-PCR (p-value = 0.023). Phylogenetic analysis confirmed the EV-A71 strain clustered with a neurovirulent German EV-A71. A single amino acid substitution (S241P) in the EVA71 VP1 protein was exclusive to the CNS in one subject. CONCLUSION: mNGS with VirScan significantly increased the CNS detection of EVs relative to qRT-PCR, and the latter generated an antigenic profile of the acute EV-A71 immune response. Genomic analysis confirmed the close relation of the outbreak EV-A71 and neuroinvasive German EV-A71. A S241P substitution in VP1 was found exclusively in the CSF.

Gut microbiota-specific IgA+ B cells traffic to the CNS in active multiple sclerosis.

Changes in gut microbiota composition and a diverse role of B cells have recently been implicated in multiple sclerosis (MS), a central nervous system (CNS) autoimmune disease. Immunoglobulin A (IgA) is a key regulator at the mucosal interface. However, whether gut microbiota shape IgA responses and what role IgA+ cells have in neuroinflammation are unknown. Here, we identify IgA-bound taxa in MS and show that IgA-producing cells specific for MS-associated taxa traffic to the inflamed CNS, resulting in a strong, compartmentalized IgA enrichment in active MS and other neuroinflammatory diseases. Unlike previously characterized polyreactive anti-commensal IgA responses, CNS IgA cross-reacts with surface structures on specific bacterial strains but not with brain tissue. These findings establish gut microbiota-specific IgA+ cells as a systemic mediator in MS and suggest a critical role of mucosal B cells during active neuroinflammation with broad implications for IgA as an informative biomarker and IgA-producing cells as an immune subset to harness for therapeutic interventions.

Pan-viral serology implicates enteroviruses in acute flaccid myelitis.

Since 2012, the United States of America has experienced a biennial spike in pediatric acute flaccid myelitis (AFM)1-6. Epidemiologic evidence suggests non-polio enteroviruses (EVs) are a potential etiology, yet EV RNA is rarely detected in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)2. CSF from children with AFM (n = 42) and other pediatric neurologic disease controls (n = 58) were investigated for intrathecal antiviral antibodies, using a phage display library expressing 481,966 overlapping peptides derived from all known vertebrate and arboviruses (VirScan). Metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS) of AFM CSF RNA (n = 20 cases) was also performed, both unbiased sequencing and with targeted enrichment for EVs. Using VirScan, the viral family significantly enriched by the CSF of AFM cases relative to controls was Picornaviridae, with the most enriched Picornaviridae peptides belonging to the genus Enterovirus (n = 29/42 cases versus 4/58 controls). EV VP1 ELISA confirmed this finding (n = 22/26 cases versus 7/50 controls). mNGS did not detect additional EV RNA. Despite rare detection of EV RNA, pan-viral serology frequently identified high levels of CSF EV-specific antibodies in AFM compared with controls, providing further evidence for a causal role of non-polio EVs in AFM.

Hospital costs, incidence, and inhospital mortality rates of traumatic subdural hematoma in the United States.

OBJECT: This study provides the first US national data regarding frequency, cost, and mortality rate of traumatic subdural hematoma (SDH), and identifies demographic factors affecting morbidity and death in patients with traumatic SDH undergoing surgical drainage. METHODS: A retrospective analysis was conducted by querying the Nationwide Inpatient Sample, the largest all-payer database of nonfederal community hospitals. All cases of traumatic SDH were identified using ICD-9 codes. The study consisted of 2 parts: 1) trends data, which were abstracted from the years 1993-2006, and 2) univariate analysis and multivariate logistic regression of demographic variables on inhospital complications and deaths for the years 1993-2002. RESULTS: Admissions for traumatic SDH increased 154% from 17,328 in 1993 to 43,996 in 2006. Inhospital deaths decreased from 16.4% to 11.6% for traumatic SDH. Average costs increased 67% to $47,315 per admission. For the multivariate regression analysis, between 1993 and 2002, 67,864 patients with traumatic SDH underwent operative treatment. The inhospital mortality rate was 14.9% for traumatic SDH drainage, with an 18% inhospital complication rate. Factors affecting inhospital deaths included presence of coma (OR = 2.45) and more than 2 comorbidities (OR = 1.60). Increased age did not worsen the inhospital mortality rate. CONCLUSIONS: Nationally, frequency and cost of traumatic SDH cases are increasing rapidly.

Trends in median, ulnar, radial, and brachioplexus nerve injuries in the United States.

UNLABELLED: significant constraints on an individual's quality of life. OBJECTIVE: To promote efforts to reduce exposure to injury risk factors and to utilize effective therapies when damage does occur, it is important to understand historical trends in both the demographics of peripheral nerve injury (PNI) patients and their treatment. We sought to examine some of these trends. METHODS: We searched the Nationwide Inpatient Sample for discharges classified with International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision diagnosis codes of median, ulnar, radial, or brachioplexus nerve injury between 1993 and 2006. We analyzed these data to obtain trend information for the number of discharges, hospital charges, treatment course, patient demographics, and other measures. RESULTS: Although aggregate discharges involving these injuries decreased slightly between 1993 and 2006, mean nominal hospital charges for their treatment increased significantly, in particular, for brachial plexus injuries. In 2006 30 to 40% of median, ulnar, and radial nerve injuries required acute repair by direct nerve suture. PNI patients in 2006 were more likely to be male, between the ages of 18 and 44 years, and from regions where the median income level is greater than $36 000. Approximately 75% of PNIs were treated in academic hospitals and 95% in metropolitan areas. CONCLUSION: PNIs are complex injuries that primarily affect males in key years of adulthood, frequently requiring high-cost acute surgical repair. Although there has been a slight decline in their incidence in the past decade, treatment cost has increased.