Effect of Bone Quality and Leg Depth on the Biomechanical Performance of a Nitinol Staple.

The use of Nitinol compression staples has increased in foot and ankle procedures due to their ease of delivery and ability to offer sustained, dynamic compression. Prior biomechanical studies have predominantly examined mechanical performance in healthy bone models without investigating the effect of unicortical versus bicortical fixation. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of bone quality and staple leg depth on the biomechanical performance of Nitinol staples in a bicortical bone model. Two-legged Nitinol staples were implanted in bicortical sawbone of 2 densities. Two different leg depths were tested to simulate unicortical versus bicortical fixation. Interfacial compressive forces, interfacial compression area, torsional strength, and shear strength were measured for each group. The effect of leg depth was minimal compared to the effect of sawbone density on the mechanical performance of Nitinol staples. Interfacial compressive force and interfacial compression areas were greater in the low density bone model, while torsional strength and shear strength were greater in the normal density bone model. Nitinol staple's mechanical performance is highly dependent upon bone quality and less dependent on whether staple legs terminate in cancellous versus cortical bone. Low density bone allows for a higher compressive interfacial area to be imparted by the staple. Staples in normal density bone are able to resist torsion and shear deformation more readily than staples in low density bone. Bone density may have a greater effect on the Nitinol staple's stability and compressive capability in vivo as compared to unicortical versus bicortical leg fixation.

Early Functional Outcomes and Complications of Tibial and/or Peroneal Sesamoidectomy Utilizing a Burr Through a Medial Approach.

BACKGROUND: Sesamoid pathology can lead to significant pain and disability both with activities of daily living and high-impact athletic movements. Sesamoidectomy is a widely used procedure for patients who fail conservative treatment measures. Traditional dorsal or plantar approaches for sesamoidectomy have shown to successfully alleviate pain, but complications were reported. A proposed alternative medial approach using a burr may provide many advantages compared with traditional approaches. This study presents patient outcomes and complications for this technique. METHODS: This was a retrospective chart review of patients undergoing sesamoidectomy (tibial, peroneal, or both) using a burr through a medial approach to the sesamoid metatarsal articulation. Data collected included patient demographics, radiographic analysis, and outcomes: Veterans Rand 12 Item Health Survey (VR-12), Foot and Ankle Ability Measure (FAAM), visual analog scale (VAS), patient satisfaction, and complications. RESULTS: Twenty-seven patients (29 feet) were included. The mean age was 38.4 years followed up for a mean of 30.9 months. VR-12 physical component improved from 35.98 ± 7.86 to 51.34 ± 8.01 (P < .001), FAAM ADL and sport improved from 58.33 ± 16.61 to 83.27 ± 18.28 (P < .001) and 26.37 ± 20.31 to 63.75 ± 29.74 (P < .001), respectively. Patient satisfaction with the treatment was 80.59% ± 27.06%. The overall complication rate was 11 (37.9%) whereas the overall reoperation rate was 4 (13.7%) of 29 feet. Complications included 1 arthrofibrosis, 1 flexor hallucis longus subacute rupture, and 1 asymptomatic hallux valgus. There were no sesamoid excision revisions. CONCLUSION: Sesamoidectomy using a medial approach with a burr provided significantly improved short-term functional outcomes, 80% patient satisfaction rate, with a relatively acceptable complications rate including 20% persistent pain. The medial approach is familiar to orthopaedic foot and ankle surgeons, provides adequate exposure, and eliminates the possibility of a painful plantar scar while avoiding disruption of the plantar plate, flexor hallucis brevis tendon, and ligamentous structures attached to the sesamoids. Larger studies with long-term follow-up from other centers are needed.

Isolated Talonavicular Arthrodesis as Treatment for Flexible Progressive Collapsing Foot Deformity: A Case Series.

Background: For the younger, more active patient with flexible symptomatic progressive collapsing foot deformity (PCFD), joint-sparing procedures may be preferred to preserve functional motion. Isolated talonavicular (TN) arthrodesis has been described for treatment of rigid and flexible PCFD for patients that are older and less active whose deformity is still correctable through the TN joint. The purpose of this study was to evaluate radiographic and clinical outcomes in patients with PCFD treated with isolated triplanar correction with a TN joint arthrodesis. Methods: Forty-nine patients (53 feet) with flexible PCFD underwent isolated TN arthrodesis. Weightbearing radiographs were performed pre- and postoperatively, and measurements included lateral talar-first metatarsal angle, calcaneal pitch, TN coverage angle, and the anteroposterior (AP) talar-first metatarsal angle. The Foot and Ankle Ability Measure (FAAM) and Veterans-Rand 12-Item Health Survey (VR-12) scores were also collected. Results: Thirty-five females and 14 males were evaluated with a mean age of 63 years, at an average follow-up of 41.3 months. Significant improvements were found radiographically. Lateral radiographs demonstrated improvements in lateral talar-first metatarsal angle from 25.2 degrees preoperatively to 9.5 degrees postoperatively (P < .001) and calcaneal pitch from 14.9 degrees preoperatively to 17.5 degrees postoperatively (P < .001). AP radiographs showed the TN coverage angle improving from 35.0 degrees to 4.9 degrees postoperatively (P < .001) and AP talar-first metatarsal angle improving from 17.3 degrees to 5.9 degrees postoperatively (P < .001). Clinical outcomes were improved in the FAAM pain score (48.6 to 39.2, P = .130), FAAM ADL score (53.8 to 69.2, P = .002), FAAM Sport score (29.5 to 40.7, P = .099), and the overall FAAM score (47.7 to 63.1, P = .006). Patient satisfaction with medical care was 85.2/100 postoperatively. Conclusion: Isolated TN arthrodesis is a viable surgical option for older, lower-demand patients with flexible PCFD. This study demonstrated significant improvements in radiographic alignment and FAAM scores. Comparative studies with other surgical procedures should be performed to determine which is the best technique for older, lower-demand patients with flexible PCFD. Level of Evidence: Level III, retrospective cohort study.

Osteochondral distal metatarsal allograft reconstruction: a case series and surgical technique.

BACKGROUND: Painful degenerative diseases of the metatarsophalangeal joints (MTPJs) are frequently progressive and difficult to treat. Traditional operative treatments such as debridement, distal metatarsal osteotomies, and arthroplasty present a unique set of complications, and pain and deformity may still occur. Osteochondral distal metatarsal allograft reconstruction (ODMAR) is presented as a salvage procedure, reserved for patients with significant bone loss or avascular necrosis in whom traditional interventions have failed or are inadequate to address the underlying joint deformity. METHODS: A retrospective review identified all ODMAR cases performed by the senior author over the past 10 years. Patient symptoms, satisfaction, and MTPJ range of motion were measured at each postoperative evaluation. Graft healing and subsequent degenerative changes at the MTPJ were observed at each visit with foot radiographs. The surgical techniques for both first and lesser metatarsal reconstructions are described. RESULTS: Six patients were identified with average follow-up interval of 36 months (range, 6-66). Preoperative diagnoses included infection (1), fracture (1), and avascular necrosis (4). Mean total arc of motion was 40 degrees (range, 30-50). All patients maintained viability of the allograft metatarsal head and joint space was normal or Kellgren-Lawrence grade 1 in 5 of 6 patients at final follow-up. All patients demonstrated osseous union of the metatarsal osteotomy site. No patients have undergone revision surgery to date. CONCLUSIONS: ODMAR is a safe and effective procedure for treatment of painful, degenerative conditions of the MTPJs. Further studies are required to determine the definitive indications and long-term outcomes for this procedure. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV, retrospective case series.

Posterior pilon fractures: a retrospective case series and proposed classification system.

BACKGROUND: Posterior malleolus fractures occur in 7% to 44% of ankle fractures and are associated with worse clinical outcomes. Fractures that involve the posteromedial plafond extending to the medial malleolus have been described previously in small case series. Failure to identify this fracture pattern has led to poor clinical outcomes and persistent talar subluxation. The purpose of this study was to report our outcomes following fixation of this posterior pilon fracture and to describe a novel classification system to help guide operative planning and fixation. METHODS: Eleven patients were identified following fixation of a posterior pilon fracture over a 4-year span; 7 returned at minimum 1-year follow-up to complete a physical examination, radiographs, and RAND-36 (health-related quality of life score developed at RAND [Research and Development Corporation] as part of the Medical Outcomes Study) and American Orthopaedic Foot & Ankle Society (AOFAS) ankle/hindfoot questionnaires. Patient records were reviewed to evaluate for secondary complications or operative procedures. RESULTS: Our mean postoperative AOFAS ankle/hindfoot score was 82. Anatomical reduction of the plafond was noted radiographically in 7 of 11 patients, with the remainder demonstrating less than 2 mm of articular incongruity. Five of 7 patients demonstrated ankle and hindfoot range of motion within 5 degrees of the uninvolved extremity. Four complications required operative intervention; 2 patients reported continued pain secondary to development of CRPS. CONCLUSION: The posterior pilon fracture is a challenging fracture pattern to treat, and it has unique characteristics that require careful attention to operative technique. Our results following fixation of this fracture pattern are comparable with results in the literature. In addition, a novel classification scheme is described to guide recognition and treatment of this fracture pattern. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV, retrospective case series.

Alcohol sclerosing therapy is not an effective treatment for interdigital neuroma.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol sclerosing therapy has been reported as a safe and effective means of treating interdigital neuromas, both with or without ultrasound. The use of ultrasound introduces beside the ultrasound device, increased cost, and the need for skilled technicians and may reduce usability, especially in the outpatient clinic. We report a series of patients with interdigital neuroma treated using ethanol sclerosing therapy in a clinic setting without the use of ultrasound. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed charts of 32 consecutive patients who were enrolled to receive a series of sclerosing ethanol injections from June 2009 to April 2010 for the treatment of a painful interdigital neuroma. Plain radiographs and MRI scans were obtained if clinically indicated to assistance with the diagnosis. Duration and quality of symptoms were recorded and current pain levels were evaluated on a visual analog pain scale. Previous treatments, including orthotic use, corticosteroid injection, or prior neuroma resection were reported. A solution of 1 ml consisting of 20% ethanol and 0.25% bupivacain solution was injected without the use of ultrasound into the affected webspace. The mixture was provided by the local pharmacy. Technical success was confirmed by the temporary resolution of pain following local anesthetic infiltration. If still symptomatic, an injection was repeated every 2 weeks, with most patients receiving a series of four injections. Pain was evaluated on a visual analog pain scale at each visit. Treatment success was defined as resolution of pain as expressed by the patient. RESULTS: Of the 32 patients successful relief of symptoms was only achieved in seven patients, while 25 showed no significant reduction of symptoms and considered or underwent a surgical excision. CONCLUSION: Alcohol sclerosing therapy administered in the clinic setting without alcohol is not an effective treatment in the nonoperative management of painful interdigital neuromas and has been abandoned in our clinic.

Patient-Reported Outcomes and Early Complications After Synthetic Cartilage Device Implantation.

BACKGROUND: Previous Level I studies show promising results for the use of a hydrogel synthetic cartilage implant (SCI) for the treatment of hallux rigidus. A recent independent retrospective review has put those results into question, however. The purpose of this article is to report patient-reported outcomes and early complications using this implant so as to add to the paucity of data in the literature regarding this implant. METHODS: This was a retrospective chart review of patients undergoing hydrogel synthetic cartilage implant for the treatment of hallux rigidus from July 2017 to November 2018. Data collected included patient demographics, radiographic grading, and outcomes: Veterans Rand 12 Item Health Survey (VR-12), Foot and Ankle Ability Measure (FAAM), visual analog scale (VAS), patient satisfaction, and complications. Fifty-four patients (59 feet) with an average age of 57.6 (range, 39-78) years were analyzed. The average latest follow-up was 18.9 (range, 3-31.3) months. Body mass index was 26.7 (range, 18.7-35.2). None were diabetic and 5 were smokers. RESULTS: The mean outcome improvements were 6.5 points (VR-12 Physical), 17.2 points (FAAM ADL), 27.4 points (FAAM Sport), and 18.4 points (VAS) (P < .01 for each). Scores were significantly improved from preoperatively to most recent follow-up for FAAM ADL (71.0 vs 88.2 points), FAAM Sports (44.6 vs 72.0 points), and VAS (49.4 vs 31.0) (P < .01). Overall, 72.5% patients would definitely or probably have the operation again. Ten patients (18.5%) went on to have revision surgery. Of these, 7 patients were revised to an arthrodesis, and 1 metal hemiarthroplasty and 2 implants were removed because of infection. CONCLUSION: Synthetic cartilage implantation for the treatment of hallux rigidus demonstrated improved pain and outcome scores at short-term follow-up. Reoperation and conversion to fusion rates were comparable to prior studies. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV, case series.

Analysis of the foot and ankle section of the Orthopaedic In-Training Examination (OITE).

BACKGROUND: The Orthopaedic In-Training Examination (OITE) was first administered in 1963 to orthopaedic surgical residents. In 2007, an analysis of the OITE tumor-related questions was published. To our knowledge, no analysis of the foot and ankle-related questions is available in the literature. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We analyzed the foot and ankle questions on the OITE over a 5-year period (2004 to 2008). The average number of foot and ankle questions, topics, specific imaging modalities, treatment options, and taxonomic classification were quantified and described. RESULTS: Each year, approximately 38 of the 275 (14.2%) examination questions required knowledge of foot and ankle topics. Commonly tested topics include basic foot and ankle anatomy, the diabetic foot, ankle fractures, and calcaneus fractures. Approximately seventeen questions per year test simple recall of specific facts, while approximately sixteen questions test the examinee's ability to establish a diagnosis and subsequent treatment plan from clinical history and/or radiographs. CONCLUSION: Analysis of the OITE foot and ankle domain question content and type may aid test-writers when they write future OITE questions. This information can be used to ensure adequate coverage of the breadth of foot and ankle surgery on future OITE examinations.

Treatment of Freiberg Disease.

Freiberg disease, or osteochondrosis of the lesser metatarsal head, usually involves the second metatarsal and presents during the second or third decades of life. Conservative measures to relieve pressure on the affected metatarsal head are the first-line treatments, with good success for Smillie stage I to III disease. Operative treatments are divided into joint-preserving and joint-reconstructing procedures. Although multiple case series describe success with numerous techniques, there are no established guidelines for treatment. All surgical techniques carry a risk of a stiff or floating toe and transfer metatarsalgia. This article reviews the current surgical treatment options for Freiberg disease.

Management of the Malunited Triple Arthrodesis.

Malunion remains a common complication after triple arthrodesis, with rates as high as 6% in the reported literature. Careful patient evaluation is critical to determine the location and degree of bony deformity. A stepwise systematic approach to correct hindfoot and midfoot deformity is presented in this article. Few studies have been published to guide foot and ankle surgeons with this difficult clinical scenario, but reports have demonstrated high success rates and low rates of complications after revision triple arthrodesis.

Primary Triple Arthrodesis for Management of Rigid Flatfoot Deformity.

INTRODUCTION: Primary triple arthrodesis is a powerful and reliable procedure for stabilizing and correcting painful rigid flatfoot deformities with a low rate of complications. STEP 1 PREOPERATIVE PLANNING: Pay careful attention to the history, physical examination, and weight-bearing radiographic studies as they are critical for selecting patients who will benefit from a triple arthrodesis. STEP 2 ROOM SETUP AND PATIENT POSITIONING: Position the patient supine on the operating table with the toes pointing straight up to the ceiling. STEP 3 INCISIONS AND EXPOSURE: For a standard triple arthrodesis, use 2 incisions: a lateral sinus tarsi incision, which allows exposure of the subtalar joint, CC joint, and lateral aspect of the TN joint, and a medial incision, which provides exposure of the TN joint. STEP 4 JOINT PREPARATION: Ensure that joint preparation is thorough as this is critical for the success of any hindfoot arthrodesis. STEP 5 REDUCTION OF DEFORMITY: Reduce the TN joint first, followed by the subtalar joint, restoring a plantigrade foot and approximately 5° of hindfoot valgus alignment. STEP 6 JOINT FIXATION: Perform rigid fixation of the subtalar joint first, followed by fixation of the TN and CC joints. STEP 7 ACCESSORY PROCEDURES: Accessory procedures are often required in addition to the triple arthrodesis to ensure that appropriate hindfoot alignment and a plantigrade foot are achieved. STEP 8 WOUND CLOSURE: Perform a staged wound closure, taking care to maximize soft-tissue coverage over the involved hindfoot joints. STEP 9 POSTOPERATIVE CARE: Ensure that the patient follows strict non-weight-bearing precautions in the immediate postoperative period to limit micromotion at the arthrodesis sites and allow for timely fusion. RESULTS: In one of the largest published series of patients managed with triple arthrodesis (111 patients), Pell et al. reported a union rate of 98% at a minimum follow-up of 2 years, with 91% of patients indicating that they would be willing to repeat the procedure under similar circumstances4.

Outcome of Lateral Transfer of the FHL or FDL for Concomitant Peroneal Tendon Tears.

BACKGROUND: Concomitant tears of the peroneus longus and brevis tendons are rare injuries, with literature limited to case reports and small patient series. Only 1 recent study directly compared the results of single-stage lateral deep flexor transfer, and no previous series objectively evaluated power and balance following transfer. The purpose of this study was to evaluate clinical outcomes, patient satisfaction, and objective power and balance data following single-stage flexor hallucis longus (FHL) and flexor digitorum longus (FDL) tendon transfers for treatment of concomitant peroneus longus and brevis tears. METHODS: Over an 8-year period (2005-2012), 9 patients underwent lateral transfer of the FHL or FDL tendon for treatment of concomitant peroneus longus and brevis tears. All but 1 patient underwent additional procedures to address hindfoot malalignment or other contributing deformity at the time of surgery. Mean age was 56.9 years, and average body mass index was 27.9. Lateral transfer of the FHL was performed in 5 patients, and FDL transfer performed in 4 with mean follow-up 35.7 months (range: 11-94). Eight of 9 patients completed SF-12 and Foot Function Index (FFI) scores, and 7 returned for range of motion (ROM) and manual strength testing of the involved and normal extremities. These 7 patients also completed force plate balance tests, in addition to peak force and power testing on a PrimusRS machine with a certified physical therapist. RESULTS: All patients were satisfied with the results of the procedure. Mean SF-12 physical and mental scores were 32 and 55, respectively; mean FFI total score was 56.7. No postoperative infections were noted. Two patients continued to utilize orthotics or braces, and 2 patients reported occasional pain with weightbearing activity. Three patients noted mild paresthesias in the distribution of the sural nerve and 2 demonstrated tibial neuritis. All patients demonstrated 4/5 eversion strength in the involved extremity. Average loss of inversion and eversion ROM were 24.7% and 27.2% of normal, respectively. Mean postoperative eversion peak force and power were decreased greater than 55% relative to the normal extremity. Patients demonstrated nearly 50% increases in both center-of-pressure tracing length and velocity during balance testing. There were no statistically significant differences between the FHL and FDL transfer groups with regards to clinical examination or objective power and balance tests. CONCLUSION: The FHL and FDL tendons were both successful options for lateral transfer in cases of concomitant peroneus longus and brevis tears. Objective measurements of strength and balance demonstrated significant deficits in the operative extremity, even years following the procedure. These differences, however, did not appear to alter or inhibit patient activity levels or high satisfaction rates with the procedure. Although anatomic studies have demonstrated benefits of FHL transfer over the FDL tendon, further studies with increased patient numbers are needed to determine if these differences are clinically significant. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV, retrospective case series.

Lisfranc Injuries: When to Observe, Fix, or Fuse.

Injuries to the foot are common in the athletic population, accounting for approximately 16% of sporting injuries. The bony and ligamentous structures around the first and second tarsometatarsal (TMT) joints, or Lisfranc joint complex, are the most commonly involved in injuries to the midfoot because of the limited static and dynamic stability of this region. The appropriate management of Lisfranc or TMT joint injuries in athletes is controversial, with multiple classification schemes and treatment methods and little evidence-based guidelines to deliver appropriate care. This article reviews the current diagnosis and management principles for TMT injuries in the athletic population.

Anatomic comparison of lateral transfer of the long flexors for concomitant peroneal tears.

BACKGROUND: Lateral transfers of the flexor hallucis longus (FHL) or flexor digitorum longus (FDL) tendons have been described for treatment of concomitant, irreparable peroneal tears. This study evaluated the anatomic benefits and constraints of lateral FHL and FDL tendon transfers with regard to available tendon length, diameter, and proximity to the posterior neurovascular bundle. METHODS: In 9 cadaveric specimens, the FHL and FDL tendons were transected through a medial approach distal to the knot of Henry. Each tendon was transferred into a lateral incision, passing the FDL tendon both posterior and anterior to the tibial neurovascular bundle. The tendons were individually secured to the base of the fifth metatarsal with the foot in maximal eversion and dorsiflexion. The length of donor tendon available for fixation at the fifth metatarsal was measured. After the FDL tendon transfer was secured, the posterior neurovascular bundle was examined for signs of compression. RESULTS: Average FHL tendon diameter measured 5.1 mm; the FDL measured 4.5 mm. After passage through a bone tunnel, an additional 4.9 cm of FHL tendon remained to suture to itself; only 0.5 cm remained for the posterior and anterior FDL transfers. Transfer of the FHL did not increase muscle bulk within the retrofibular groove. Every FDL transfer posterior to the neurovascular bundle produced obvious visual compression of the tibial nerve with plantar flexion and inversion of the foot. CONCLUSION: Use of the FHL tendon for lateral transfer consistently provided sufficient length of tendon for multiple fixation options and a stronger muscle for transfer. Fixation options for the FDL were limited due to its shorter length. Lateral transfer of the FDL tendon posterior to the neurovascular bundle caused visible compression on the tibial nerve with ankle and hindfoot range of motion. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: This anatomic study confirmed several advantages for the use of the FHL tendon transfer in cases of concomitant peroneal tears.

Analysis of the orthopedic in-training examination (OITE) musculoskeletal trauma questions.

OBJECTIVES: Residency program directors are responsible for providing assessment and feedback about resident performance and for developing a comprehensive resident curriculum in orthopedic surgery. One measure of resident knowledge is the Orthopedic In-Training Examination (OITE). Scores of the OITE examination have been found to correlate with the American Board of Orthopedic Surgery Part 1 Certifying Examination. The purpose of this study was to identify commonly tested orthopedic trauma topics, the taxonomic distribution of questions, and literature references in the OITE to aid curriculum development and individual test preparation. METHODS: The musculoskeletal trauma-related questions on the OITE during a 5-year period (2004-2008) were reviewed, and the number of questions, topics, taxonomic classification, and educational references associated with each question were analyzed. RESULTS: Nearly 30% of questions each year consist of musculoskeletal trauma-related topics. Femur, tibia, and hip fractures were the most commonly tested topics. The majority (65.6%) of musculoskeletal trauma questions tested recall of specific facts. Examiners referenced primary literature sources (74.9%) more than textbooks (25.1%). The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery (American) and the Journal of Orthopaedic Trauma were cited most, accounting for 44.3% of all journal references. Forty-seven percent of the primary references were published within 5 years of the test administration. CONCLUSIONS: One method for assessing orthopedic knowledge is the OITE examination. Longitudinal analysis of trauma-related questions shows a consistent pattern of both topics and primary literature citation. This information may be used to help guide structured review for future OITE examinations and develop an orthopedic trauma curriculum for a residency program.