Circulating HDL levels control hypothalamic astrogliosis via apoA-I.

Meta-inflammation of hypothalamic areas governing energy homeostasis has recently emerged as a process of potential pathophysiological relevance for the development of obesity and its metabolic sequelae. The current model suggests that diet-induced neuronal injury triggers microgliosis and astrocytosis, conditions which ultimately may induce functional impairment of hypothalamic circuits governing feeding behavior, systemic metabolism, and body weight. Epidemiological data indicate that low circulating HDL levels, besides conveying cardiovascular risk, also correlate strongly with obesity. We simulated that condition by using a genetic loss of function mouse model (apoA-I-/-) with markedly reduced HDL levels to investigate whether HDL may directly modulate hypothalamic inflammation. Astrogliosis was significantly enhanced in the hypothalami of apoA-I-/- compared with apoA-I+/+ mice and was associated with compromised mitochondrial function. apoA-I-/- mice exhibited key components of metabolic disease, like increased fat mass, fasting glucose levels, hepatic triglyceride content, and hepatic glucose output compared with apoA-I+/+ controls. Administration of reconstituted HDL (CSL-111) normalized hypothalamic inflammation and mitochondrial function markers in apoA-I-/- mice. Treatment of primary astrocytes with apoA-I resulted in enhanced mitochondrial activity, implying that circulating HDL levels are likely important for astrocyte function. HDL-based therapies may consequently avert reactive gliosis in hypothalamic astrocytes by improving mitochondrial bioenergetics and thereby offering potential treatment and prevention for obesity and metabolic disease.

High-density lipoprotein maintains skeletal muscle function by modulating cellular respiration in mice.

BACKGROUND: Abnormal glucose metabolism is a central feature of disorders with increased rates of cardiovascular disease. Low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) are a key predictor for cardiovascular disease. We used genetic mouse models with increased HDL levels (apolipoprotein A-I transgenic [apoA-I tg]) and reduced HDL levels (apoA-I-deficient [apoA-I ko]) to investigate whether HDL modulates mitochondrial bioenergetics in skeletal muscle. METHODS AND RESULTS: ApoA-I ko mice exhibited fasting hyperglycemia and impaired glucose tolerance test compared with wild-type mice. Mitochondria isolated from gastrocnemius muscle of apoA-I ko mice displayed markedly blunted ATP synthesis. Endurance capacity during exercise exhaustion test was impaired in apoA-I ko mice. HDL directly enhanced glucose oxidation by increasing glycolysis and mitochondrial respiration rate in C2C12 muscle cells. ApoA-I tg mice exhibited lower fasting glucose levels, improved glucose tolerance test, increased lactate levels, reduced fat mass, associated with protection against age-induced decline of endurance capacity compared with wild-type mice. Circulating levels of fibroblast growth factor 21, a novel biomarker for mitochondrial respiratory chain deficiencies and inhibitor of white adipose lipolysis, were significantly reduced in apoA-I tg mice. Consistent with an increase in glucose utilization of skeletal muscle, genetically increased HDL and apoA-I levels in mice prevented high-fat diet-induced impairment of glucose homeostasis. CONCLUSIONS: In view of impaired mitochondrial function and decreased HDL levels in type 2 diabetes mellitus, our findings indicate that HDL-raising therapies may preserve muscle mitochondrial function and address key aspects of type 2 diabetes mellitus beyond cardiovascular disease.

Ultrastructure of the nebenkern during spermatogenesis in the praying mantid Hierodula membranacea.

Spermatogenesis leads to the formation of functional sperm cells. Here we have applied high-pressure freezing in combination with transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to study the ultrastructure of sperm development in subadult males of the praying mantid Hierodula membranacea, a species in which spermatogenesis had not previously been studied. We show the ultrastructure of different stages of sperm development in this species. Thorough examination of TEM data and electron tomographic reconstructions revealed interesting structural features of the nebenkern, an organelle composed of fused mitochondria that has been studied in spermatids of other insect species. We have applied serial-section electron tomography of the nebenkern to demonstrate in three dimensions (3D) that this organelle in H. membranacea is composed of two interwoven mitochondrial derivatives, and that the mitochondrial derivatives are connected by a zipper-like structure at opposing positions. Our approach will enable further ultrastructural analyses of the nebenkern in other organisms.

Chromosome number, sex determination, and meiotic chromosome behavior in the praying mantid Hierodula membranacea.

Praying mantids are important models for studying a wide range of chromosome behaviors, yet few species of mantids have been characterized chromosomally. Here we show that the praying mantid Hierodula membranacea has a chromosome number of 2n = 27, and X1X1X2X2 (female): X1X2Y (male) sex determination. In male meiosis I, the X1, X2, and Y chromosomes of H. membranacea form a sex trivalent, with the Y chromosome associating with one spindle pole and the X1 and X2 chromosomes facing the opposite spindle pole. While it is possible that such a sex trivalent could experience different spindle forces on each side of the trivalent, in H. membranacea the sex trivalent aligns at the spindle equator with all of the autosomes, and then the sex chromosomes separate in anaphase I simultaneously with the autosomes. With this observation, H. membranacea can be used as a model system to study the balance of forces acting on a trivalent during meiosis I and analyze the functional importance of chromosome alignment in metaphase as a preparatory step for subsequent correct chromosome segregation.

In situ analysis of male meiosis in C. elegans.

We describe a routine method to locate cells of appropriate meiotic stages in the gonad of Caenorhabditis elegans males prior to 3D reconstruction of meiotic spindles by electron tomography. For this, serial semi-thick (300nm) sections of whole worms are pre-screened and recorded at low magnification by transmission electron microscopy. Cells of interest are identified in aligned image stacks showing the entire proximal region of male gonads at low magnification. Tilt series of selected cells are then recorded at higher magnification to reconstruct meiotic spindles of selected cells in 3D. Our approach allows a routine staging of spermatocytes without the use of anesthetics or the application of physical immobilization of worms. We also describe a modification of a previously published protocol (Muller-Reichert, Srayko, Hyman, O'Toole, & McDonald, 2007) by using polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) instead of bovine serum albumin (BSA) as a "filler" for specimen loading in high-pressure freezing.